Chapter 3 Philosophy and Leisure

1
Chapter 3 Philosophy and Leisure
C H A P T E R
3
Philosophy and Leisure
Donald J. McLean
2
What Is Philosophy?

• The word philosophy comes to us from the ancient
  Greeks and means the love of wisdom.
• Philosophy is important to both the academic
  study of leisure and the delivery of recreation
  services.

3
Five Branches of Philosophy

• Modern philosophy is associated with five
  branches of inquiry, and each is relevant to both
  leisure researchers and practitioners
• Metaphysics
• Epistemology
• Logic
• Aesthetics
• Ethics

4
Metaphysics and Leisure

• Metaphysics concerns fundamental questions about
  the nature of reality.
• In the recreation and leisure literature,
  metaphysical issues have focused on whether
  leisure should be defined as a
• state of being or
• state of mind.

5
Metaphysics Leisureas a State of Being

• Leisure as a state of being reflects the
  traditional view that leisure depends on the
  judgments of others about whether the activities
  that we do and our living conditions qualify as
  leisure.
• The ancient Greeks primarily thought of leisure
  as freedom from the necessity of work and
  engagement in ennobling activities such as music
  and philosophy.

6
Metaphysics Leisureas a State of Mind

• Leisure as a state of mind reflects the modern
  view that leisure is a subjective, psychological
  state rather than the actual activity that a
  person is doing or her or his life circumstances.
• If leisure is a state of mind, when a person
  perceives an activity or situation as leisure,
  then it indeed is leisure.

7
Metaphysics Problems If LeisureIs Viewed Only
as a State of Mind

• Sylvester argues that the dominant modern view
  of leisure as a state of mind opens the door to
  unacceptable behaviors and circumstances being
  classified as leisure.
• If leisure is a subjective perception, then
  potentially any activity, including illegal and
  immoral acts, can be classified as leisure.

8
Metaphysics Problems If LeisureIs Viewed Only
as a State of Being

• Leisure as a state of being is appropriate when
  activities need to be authentic or reflect real
  achievement such as visiting a historical site or
  competing at a sport.
• But at times it is better that leisure activity
  simulates reality or achievement, such as by
  providing a subjective perception of risk rather
  than exposing participants to actual danger.

9
Epistemology and Leisure

• Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that
  examines knowledge itself.
• Epistemology deals with questions such as
• the sources of our knowledge,
• the types of things that it is possible for us to
  know, and
• how certain we can be of our knowledge.

10
Epistemology EmpiricismVersus Rationalism

• Empiricism maintains that knowledge is derived
  from what we observe from senses.
• Rationalism says that knowledge is generated from
  the ideas created in our minds.

11
Epistemology QuantitativeVersus Qualitative

• Leisure researchers are divided on whether
  empirical knowledge about leisure should come
  from quantitative data (numbers) or qualitative
  data (words).
• Both quantitative and qualitative approaches are
  based on the assumption that knowledge about
  leisure should be derived from the collection of
  empirical data.

12
Epistemology Rationalismand Theoretical
Research

• Theoretical research is based on applying
  philosophical analysis to ideas and concepts
  relating to recreation and leisure.
• The classical conception of leisure of the
  ancient Greeks was created from rationalist
  methods or inquiry rather than empirical study of
  leisure behavior.

13
Epistemology Rationalismand Theoretical
Research

• Modern scholars such as Josef Pieper have
  continued to advance our understanding of leisure
  and recreation using nonempirical methods of
  inquiry.
• Theoretical research is particularly useful when
  we are dealing with questions concerning leisure
  values, such as whether the expansion of gambling
  opportunities has been beneficial.

14
Epistemology Empiricaland Theoretical Research

• Understanding complex social phenomena such as
  leisure and recreation requires both theoretical
  or philosophical analysis and empirical
  (quantitative and qualitative) research.
• Although we may prefer a particular approach to
  understand leisure and recreation, we should be
  wary of excluding other methods of knowing.

15
Logic and Leisure

• Logic is the branch of philosophy concerned with
  the principles and structure of reasoning.
• Logic helps us determine whether our reasons
  properly support the conclusion that we make.

16
Logic Leisure Research

• The methods of leisure research, whether
  empirical or theoretical, depend heavily on the
  use of both deductive and inductive inferences to
  generate new knowledge about leisure and
  recreation.
• Logic plays an important role in leisure research
  by demonstrating that the conclusion researchers
  draw are properly supported.

17
Logic Leisure Practitioners

• Leisure practitioners need to use both deductive
  and inductive reasoning to aid their decision
  making in management-related functions such as
  strategic planning, budgeting, and evaluation.
• Practitioners also need to be able to justify
  their actions and decisions to various
  stakeholder groups by using informal logic and
  critical thinking.

18
Aesthetics and Leisure

• Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that
  examines the nature of beauty in relation to art
  and the natural environment.
• Issues of aesthetics have played a significant
  role not only in cultural recreation but also in
  outdoor recreation, particularly in regard to
  wilderness areas.

19
Aesthetics Wilderness

• Authors such as Nash have noted that Western
  civilizations attitude and treatment of
  wilderness have depended on whether nature is
  regarded as ugly and evil or as divinely
  beautiful.
• Aesthetic values and judgments are important
  factors in the management of wilderness areas and
  have fostered growing interest in environmental
  aesthetics.

20
Ethics and Leisure

• Ethics is the branch of philosophy that focuses
  on the study of moral theories, principles, and
  values and is important to the delivery of
  recreation and leisure services for several
  reasons
• Leisure service providers are likely to encounter
  many vexing ethical dilemmas during their
  careers.
• Leisure service providers are often put in a
  position of trust when working with vulnerable
  populations.
• Leisure service providers are expected to
  exercise a high degree of responsibility and
  provide healthful activities.

21
Ethics Ancient Greek Philosophy

• The origin of the Western conception of leisure
  is closely connected to the ethics of the ancient
  Greeks.
• The ancient Greek philosophers framed their
  discussions of ethics in terms of how people
  could best live their lives to find happiness.
• Plato and Aristotle focused on questions of
  ethics (for optimizing the lifestyle of the
  individual) and politics (for optimizing the
  functioning of the state).

22
Ethics Platos Theory of Leisure

• Plato separated good leisure activities from
  bad ones. Only certain types of virtuous
  leisure were allowed, such as controlling
  storytelling and music. He was fearful of
  recreation that excited the emotions.
• The legacy of Platos political philosophy is
  present in leisure services today Recreational
  programming and activities for youth should
  contribute to positive character development.
• Platos belief was that leisure and recreation
  are important tools for influencing individuals
  and society.

23
Ethics Aristotles Philosophyof Leisure

• Aristotle agreed with Plato that living the ideal
  lifestyle required following habits of living
  that were virtuous.
• Aristotles concept of leisure was elitist.
  Slaves were not allowed the luxury of leisure
  because their labor was needed to provide for the
  leisure of the free male citizenry.

24
Ethics Aristotle and Happiness

• Aristotle believed that happiness results from
  being the best that we can be.
• The person who has the most rewarding lifestyle
  is the philosopher who is at leisure to develop
  his intellect to its highest capacity.
• Human fulfillment results from achieving
  excellence from things we choose to do when we
  use our leisure correctly.

25
Ethics Aristotle and Freedom

• Freedom is an important element of Aristotles
  concept of virtuous leisure.
• We should seek freedom from material wants so
  that we can have time for leisure and not be
  enslaved by our work.
• We should seek intellectual freedom to understand
  why virtuous leisure activities are good.
• Freedom is the essential characteristic of any
  virtuous leisure activity.

26
Ethics Contemporary Philosophyof Leisure

• Modern society is work oriented.
• The ancient Greeks were work averse. Work was
  only a necessity of life. They valued work
  primarily as a means of obtaining leisure.
• Modern lifestyles appear to have reversed that
  equation because we tend to define ourselves by
  our work rather than our leisure.

27
Ethics Webers Analysisof the Work Ethic

• Webers concept of the work ethic refers to a
  cultural ideal that regards work as the most
  important activity in a persons life.
• New reverence for work arose from the Protestant
  Reformation.
• It is worknot leisurethat makes life worth
  living, which culturally defines our modern
  conception of the good life.

28
Ethics Russells Critiqueof the Work Ethic

• Preindustrial societies were based on a slave
  morality.
• Modern technology created an abundance of goods
  so that everyone could have a leisured lifestyle.
  
• Leisure, however, continued to be reserved for
  the upper crust in society and denied to the
  working class.
• Proposed a work-sharing arrangement to create a
  four-hour workday so that people could pursue
  cultural and intellectual interests.

29
Ethics Piepers Critiqueof the Work Ethic

• We no longer know what leisure is we live in a
  totally work-oriented culture.
• Liberal arts disciplines such as philosophy are
  treated as a type of intellectual labor, valued
  only for their usefulness for solving practical
  problems.
• Knowledge for knowledges sake is devalued by the
  culture of work.
• Our leisure time is useful if it refreshes us so
  that we can resume our work with renewed vigor.
• Our worship of work produces a meaningless,
  unsatisfying lifestyle.
• We live to work well, rather than working so that
  we can live well.

30
Ethics Veblens Critiqueof Consumption

• Veblen defined ostentatious displays of wealth as
  conspicuous consumption. He criticized the
  super rich of his erathe Vanderbilts, Carnegies,
  and Rockefellersas status seekers who used
  wealth amassed from 19th century business empires
  to give themselves an air of nobility.
• In a consumer culture, success is measured by the
  luxurious and expensive goods that we own, which
  increase our social status.

31
Ethics Loss of Social Capital

• According to Putnams analysis, Americans are
  becoming increasingly isolated socially as they
  engage in more solitary leisure.
• Membership in community organizations dropped
  dramatically at the end of the 20th century.
• Americans have become less satisfied with their
  lives because they have experienced a decline in
  their social capital.

32
Ethics Solving Ethical Dilemmas in Leisure
Services

• Socially responsible leisure service providers
  need to have a macro, or big-picture,
  understanding of the broad social and ethical
  issues that affect the quality of peoples
  leisure lives.
• But leisure service providers also need to be
  able to apply ethical analysis in micro settings
  when they deal with specific instances of moral
  dilemmas.

33
Ethics Three Approachesfor Resolving Moral
Dilemmas

1. Consequence-based ethics weighing the
   consequences to maximize the overall good
2. Duty-based ethics ranking duties and obligations
   to determine what is right
3. Virtue-based ethics consulting ones conscience
   and personal integrity

34
Ethics Tanning Bed Case

• At a multipurpose community recreation center,
  patrons have indicated that they would like the
  recreation center to install tanning beds.
• The staff considers the possible negative health
  effects.
• Patrons are dismayed and even outright hostile
  over the staffs decision to reject the equipment
  suggestion.
• Reflect on the scenario presented in the chapter.
  What are the ethical dilemmas? What is the
  plausible solution?

35
Summary

• The five branches of philosophy are important to
  both leisure research and leisure service
  provision by helping us to
• reflect more deeply on questions of how leisure
  and recreation should be defined,
• understand that our knowledge of leisure and
  recreation derives from both empirical and
  rational sources,
• (continued)

36
Summary (continued)

• make our decision processes in both leisure
  research and leisure service provision more
  logical,
• appreciate the significant role that aesthetics
  plays in the experiencing of leisure and the
  provision of leisure services,
• ethically evaluate societal issues and problems
  relating to leisure and respond in positive ways
  to improve quality of life, and
• address and resolve the ethical dilemmas that are
  encountered by leisure services providers.