Title: The%20Story%20of%20Psychology
1The Story of Psychology
2Whats in this Chapter?
- Where did psychology come from anyway?
- Schools of thought
- Why do we need psychology?
- applications of psychological knowledge
- So whats the big deal?
- major issues
3What is Psychology?
- Psychology
- The science of behavior (what we do) and mental
processes (sensations, perceptions, dreams,
thoughts, beliefs, feelings)
44 Broad Divisions of Psychology
- Physical characteristics
- Cognitive activities
- Emotional states
- Environmental factors
5Psychological Research
- Majority of research is performed on animals
- Animals make useful subjects for the following
reasons - Longer periods of study
- Shorter life spans
- The good subject unaware of experiment
- Cats often used for neurophysiology experiments
- Unfortunately, they have been used unethically
(guidelines created to protect) - Remarkable similarities in human processes
- Explains hunger, thirst, reproduction,/ Provides
info on vision, taste, hearing, and pain
perception/Understanding of genetic vulnerability
to drug dependence
6General Purpose of Psychology
- To acquire basic knowledge about behavior
- To apply to specific situations
- To apply to clinical situations
- To apply to society at large
7Psychological Perspectives
- Biological (neuroscience)
- Study of the physiological mechanisms in the
brain and nervous system that organize and
control behavior - Interest in BEHAVIOR distinguishes from many
other biological sciences - Focus may range from individual neurons, areas of
the brain, or specific fxns like eating, emotion,
or learning
8Psychological Perspectives
- Evolutionary (ethology)
- The study of animal behavior in the natural
environment rather than in a lab setting - Focuses on how the natural selection of traits
promotes the perpetuation of ones genes - Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on innate,
adaptive, behavior patterns - European approach to studying behavior founded by
animal researchers, Lorenz Tinbergen
9Psychological Perspectives
- Behavioral Perspective
- How we learn from observable behavior
- Involves what comes before behavior
- What comes after the behavior to reinforce it OR
punish it - Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
- Observation learning
10Psychological Perspectives
- Behavior genetics
- How much our genes and our environment influence
our individual difference - To what extent are personality traits,
intelligence, sexual orientation, mental
disorders, etc. attributable to our genes or
environment? - Nature vs. Nurture field of study!!!!!! ?
11Psychological Perspectives
- Psychodynamic (Sigmund Freud)
- how behavior springs from unconscious drives and
conflicts - Both a method of treatment and a theory of the
mind - Behavior reflects combinations of conscious and
unconscious influences - Drives urges within the unconscious component
of the mind influence thought and behavior - Early childhood experiences shape unconscious
motivations
12Psychological Perspectives
- Cognitive
- How knowledge is encoded, processed, stored, and
retrievedand used to guide behavior - Influences Include
- Piaget- studied intellectual development
- Chomsky- studied language
- Cybernetics- science of information processing
13Psychological Perspectives
- Social-cultural/cross-cultural
- How behavior and thinking vary across situations
and cultures - Studies differences among people living in
different cultural groups - How are peoples thoughts, feelings and behavior
influenced by their culture? - What are common elements across culture?
- Uses cross-cultural studies to find cultural
universals and relativism
14Psychological Perspectives
- Humanistic
- View of behavior based on experience in treating
patients - Humanistic Approach
- Dev. By Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
- Behavior reflects innate needs to be loved, to
mate, etc. - Focus on conscious thinking and self-perception
- More positive view than Freuds
- Self-awareness free will are emphasized
15Discussion
- Describe the expressed emotion/behavior according
to each of the current psychological
perspectives -
- I am depressed.
16All Hands on DECK
- Current Psychological Perspectives
- Turn to page 11 in your textbook
- Get your index cards out make flash cards of
theses terms and use Triggers -
17History of Psychology
- Stone ages mental illness was caused by evil
spirits, practice known as Trephining was used to
treat mental illnesses - Ancient World (4000BC-500AD)
- Greeks Romans believed evil spirits were
- the cause or the gods were punishing people
- Hippocrates Father of Modern Science
- believed mental illness had natural causes
- Some traits were inherited
- others by injury to the head
18History of Psychology
- The Middle Ages (500-1500 AD)
- Mental Illness was caused by
- Demonic possession
- Witchcraft
- Heresy
- Treatment included
- Imprisonment, torture, death
- Blood letting, leaching
- Scientific study was forbidden by the church
19History of Psychology
- Scientic Revolution (17th Century)
- Attempts to find physical causes for
psychological traits - Brought about search for natural causes of
biological processes - The scientific method was born
20Prescientific Psychology
- Gave rise to questions such as
- Is the mind connected to the body or distinct?
- Are ideas inborn or is the mind a blank slate
filled with experience? - Socrates Plato
- viewed the mind as separate from the body and
continuing after death
21Prescientific Psychology
- Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
- Agreed with Socrates Plato
- Led to this conclusion with his study of animals
and reflexes - However, thought animal spirits were in the
brain fluid flowing through nervescreating
movement/reflexes - John Locke (1632-1704)
- Wrote essay stating that the mind is a Tabula
Rasa - blank slate
- Rejected Descartes and helped form modern
empiricism, which the idea that knowledge comes
through experience thru senses science based on
observation and experimentation
22Nature Vs. Nurture
- Nativism elementary idea that ideas are innate
(nature) inborn, inherited, instinctive - Thus, there is a debate between Nativism and
Empiricism, which in psychology is the age long
debate of - NATURE Vs. NURTURE
- Hint some blend together in the Behavior
Genetics perspective -
- Ex. Is intelligence determined by our genes or
our experiences? personality?
23Psychology as a Science
- Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
- Est. the 1st psychological laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany - Applied lab techniques to study of the mind
- Study of reaction time to hearing a ball hit a
platform (sensory stimulation) and pressing a
telegraph key - Wrote the 1st psychology textbook
- Father of Psychology
24Psychology as a Science
- Edward Titchener
- Wundts student who brought the study of
psychology to the United States - Due to his techniques of studying the mind, he is
linked to Structuralism the practice of using
introspection (looking inward) to explore the
elemental structure of the human mind
- Charles Darwin
- -evolutionary theorist whose big idea was natural
selection or the idea that nature selects those
organisms best able to survive and reproduce in
an environment
25Psychology as a Science
- William James
- Thought it was most beneficial to consider the
evolved functions of thoughts and feelings - Philosophical basis in pragmatism- testing the
truth by practical consequences - Associated with functionalism school of
psychology focused on how mental and behavioral
processes function- how they enable the organism
to adapt, survive, and flourish
26Contemporary Psychology
- Subfields of Psychology
- Basic Research pure science aimed to increase
knowledge base - 1. Biological psychologists explore the links
between brain and mind - 2. Developmental psychologists study the changing
abilities from womb to tomb - 3. Cognitive psychologists study how we perceive,
think, and solve problems - 4. Personality psychologists investigate our
persistent traits - 5. Social psychologists explore how we view and
affect one another
27Contemporary Psychology
- Subfields of Psychology
- Applied Research scientific study aimed to solve
practical problems - 1. Industrial/organizational psychologists study
and advise on behavior in the workplace - 2. Clinical psychologists study ,assess, and
treat people with psychological disorders - 3. Psychiatrists are medical doctors who also
perform psychotherapy and are licensed to
prescribe drugs with treatment part of branch of
medicine dealing with psychological disorders
28Where Are Psychologists Employed
29Research Areas in Psychology
30Professional Specialties
31Themes in Psychology
- Psychology is
- Empirical
- Theoretically Diverse
- Sociohistorical Context
- Behavior is
- Determined by Multiple Causes
- Shaped by Cultural Heritage
- Influenced by Heredity Environment
- Experience is
- Highly Subjective
32Practice Test
- For which of the following is Wilhelm Wundt
primarily known? - The establishment of the first formal laboratory
for research in psychology - The distinction between mind and body as two
separate entities - The discovery of how signals are conducted along
nerves in the body - The development of the first formal program for
training in psychotherapy
33Practice Test
- 2. G. stanley Hall is noteworthy in the history
of psychology because he - a. established the first American research
laboratory in psychology - b. launched Americas first psychological journal
- c. was the driving force behind the establishment
of the American Psychological Association - d. did all of the above
34Practice Test
- 3. Which of the following approaches might
William James criticize for examining a movie
frame by frame instead of seeing the motion in
the motion picture? -
- a. structuralism
- b. functionalism
- c. dualism
- d. humanism
35Practice Test
- 4. Which of the following approaches might
suggest that forgetting to pick his mother up at
the airport was Henrys unconscious way of saying
that he did not welcome her visit? - a. psychoanalytic
- b. behavioral
- c. humanistic
- d. cognitive
36Practice Test
- 5. Fred, a tennis coach, insists that he can make
any reasonably healthy individual into an
internationally competitive tennis player. Fred
is echoing the thoughts of - a. Sigmund Freud
- b. John B. Watson
- c. Abraham Maslow
- d. William James
37Practice Test
- 6. Which of the following is a statement with
which Skinners followers would agree? -
- Most behavior is controlled by unconscious forces
- The goal of behavior is self-actualization
- Nature is more influential than nurture
- Free will is an illusion
38Practice Test
- 7. Which of the following approaches has the most
optimistic view of human nature - a. humanism
- b. behaviorism
- c. psychoanalysis
- d. structuralism
39Practice Test
- 8. Which of the following historical events
created a demand for clinicians that was far
greater than the supply? - a. World War I
- b. the Depression
- c. World War II
- d. the Korean War
40Practice Test
- 9. Which of the following is not an important
interest of the positive psychology movement? - a. positive institutions and communities
- b. positive symptoms in mental disorders
- c. positive subjective experiences
- d. positive individual traits
41Practice Test
- 10. The study of the endocrine system and genetic
mechanisms would most likely be undertaken by a - a. clinical psychologist
- b. physiological psychologist
- c. social psychologist
- d. educational psychologist
42Practice Test
- 11. The fact that psychologists do not all agree
about the nature and development of personality
demonstrates - that there are many ways of looking at the same
phenomenon - The fundamental inability of psychologists t work
together in developing a single theory - The failure of psychologists to communicate with
one another - The possibility that personality may simply be
incomprehensible
43Practice Test
- 12. A multifactorial causation approach to
behavior suggests that - a. most behaviors can be explained best by
single-cause explanations - b. Most behavior is governed by a complex network
of interrelated factors - c. Data must be subjected to rigorous statistical
analysis in order to make sense - d. Explanations of behavior tend to build up from
the simple to the complex in a hierarchical manner
44Practice Test
- 13. Psychologys answer to the question of
whether we are born or made tends to be - a. we are born
- b. we are made
- c. we are both born and made
- d. neither
45Practice Test
- 14. In regard to changing answers on
multiple-choice tests, research indicates that
_____ changes tend to be more common than other
types of changes. - Wrong to right
- Right to wrong
- Wrong to wrong
46Practice Test
- 15. Critical thinking skills
- a. are abstract abilities that cannot be
identified - b. usually develop spontaneously without any
instruction - c. usually develop spontaneously without any
instruction - d. need to be deliberately taught, because they
often do not develop by themselves with standard
content instruction
47Chapter 2 The Research Enterprise of Psychology
48Example of Hindsight Bias
Psychologists have found that separation
weakens attraction out of sight-out of mind
- Fact
- Psychologists have found that separation
strengthens romantic attraction absence makes
the heart grow fonder
49What we strive for is
- Science A process that combines rationalism and
empiricism. - Rationalism uses existing ideas and the
principles of logic to develop new valid ideas. - How we develop a theory.
- Empiricism Gaining knowledge by observing
events. - How we test the validity of the theory.
50The Need for Psychological Science
- Critical Thinking
- thinking that does not blindly accept arguments
and conclusions - examines assumptions
- discerns hidden values
- evaluates evidence
- assesses conclusions
The Amazing RandiSkeptic
51Steps in a Scientific Investigation
Hypothesis Students who study over a span of 3
weeks before a test perform better than those who
wait until the night before
Data Collection
Report Findings
Method
Analysis
52- Theory
- an explanation using an integrated set of
principles that organizes and predicts
observations - Hypothesis (Step 1)
- a testable prediction
- often implied by a theory
- gives direction in research
53(No Transcript)
54- Operational Definition
- a statement of procedures (operations) used to
define research variables - Facilitates replication of research
- Example
- intelligence may be operationally defined as what
an intelligence test measures, Some theories of
intelligence include artistic and musical
abilities others do not and cover spatial
reasoning, verbal reasoning, sequencing, etc. - Example
- Classroom rule SHOW RESPECT follow a directive
within 5 secs say yes maam
55- Replication
- repeating the essence of a research study to see
whether the basic finding extends to other
participants and circumstances - usually with different participants in different
situations - Meta-analysis
- Combination of statistical results of many
studies of the same question, yielding an
estimate of the size and consistency of a
variables effects
56Research Methods (Step 2 3 Design a study
Collect Data)
- Three types of research methods
- Research that describes only (descriptive)
- 2. Research that describes and predicts behavior
(correlational) - 3. Research that describes, predicts and explains
behavior (experimentation)
57Descriptive Research
- Psychologists describe behavior using case
studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation - Example Shawna appeared fatigued. She closed
her eyes often and only spoke once during the
entire 50-minute class period.
58- Case Study
- observation technique in which one person is
studied in depth in the hope of revealing
universal principals - Advantages?
- Disadvantages?
Is language uniquely human?
59- Survey
- technique for ascertaining
- the self-reported attitudes
- or behaviors of people
- usually by questioning a
- representative, random
- sample of people
- Watch for
- wording effects- heavy
- or leading words
- Social desirability bias- socially
- approved answers
- Response set- responding that is not related to
content - Halo effect- overall outside evaluation sways
ratings
60Additional Survey Issues
- False Consensus Effect
- tendency to overestimate
- the extent to which others
- share our beliefs and
- behaviors
61- Population
- all the cases in a group, from which samples may
be drawn for a study - Random Sample
- a sample that fairly represents a population
because each member has an equal chance of
inclusion in the study
62Not what We Want
63Not what We Want
Both show Sampling Bias when the sample is not
representative of the population from which is
was drawn.
64- Naturalistic Observation
- observing and recording behavior in naturally
occurring situations without trying to manipulate
and control the situation
65Naturalistic Observation
- Advantages
- Natural real behavior
- Natural setting real world
- Disadvantages
- Unwanted behavior
- One time occurrence
- Low reliability and validity
- Interruption
66Research that describes and predicts behavior
(Step 4 Analyze Draw Conclusions)
- The Correlational Research method
67Correlation
- Correlation Coefficient
- a statistical measure of the extent to which two
factors vary together, and thus how well either
factor predicts the other
Indicates direction of relationship (positive or
negative)
Correlation coefficient
r .37
Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00)
68Correlation
- Scatterplot
- a graphed cluster of dots, each of which
represents the values of two variables - the slope of the points suggests the direction of
the relationship - the amount of scatter suggests the strength of
the correlation - little scatter indicates high correlation
- also called a scattergram or scatter diagram
69- Correlation quantifies the tendency for one
measure to covary with another measure. - When two measures increase or decrease together,
they are said to have a positive correlation. - When one measure increases and the other measure
decreases, they are said to have a negative
correlation. - If two measures do not covary consistently, they
are said to have a zero correlation.
70Correlation
Shows both the DIRECTION STRENGTH of how two
variable are related
Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations
71Correlation
72Correlation
55 60 65 70 75
80 85
- Scatterplot of Height and Temperament
73Correlation
- Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
could cause
(1) Low self-esteem
Depression
or
(2) Depression
Low self-esteem
could cause
or
Low self-esteem
(3) Distressing events or biological predispositio
n
could cause
and
Depression
74(No Transcript)
75Illusory Correlation
- Illusory Correlation
- the perception of a relationship where none
exists - Prevented by statistical measurement
76Research that describes, predicts and explains
(Step 4 Analyze Draw Conclusions)
- The Experiment
- an investigator manipulates one or more factors
(independent variables) to observe their effect
on some behavior or mental process (the dependent
variable) - by random assignment of participants into the
experimental and the control groups controls
other relevant factors that may interfere with
the results
77Experimental Elements
- Double-blind Procedure
- Helps neutralize experimenter bias
- both the research participants and the research
staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the
research participants have received the treatment
or a placebo - commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
- Placebo effect
- experimental results caused by expectations alone
- any effect on behavior caused by administration
of an inert substance or condition, which is
assumed to be an active agent
78Experimental Elements
- Experimental Condition
- the condition of an experiment that exposes
participants to the treatment, that is, to one
version of the independent variable - Control Condition
- the condition of an experiment that contrasts
with the experimental treatment - serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect
of the treatment/eliminates confounding variables - The experimental treatment is absent
79Experimental Elements
- Random Assignment
- assigning participants to experimental and
control conditions by chance - minimizes pre-existing differences between those
assigned to the different groups
80Experimental Elements
- Independent Variable
- the experimental factor that is manipulated
- the variable whose effect is being studied
- Dependent Variable
- the experimental factor that may change in
response to manipulations of the independent
variable - in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental
process - Confounding of variables
- When two variables are linked together in a way
that makes it difficult to sort out their
specific effects - Happens as a result of extraneous variables that
seem like they influence the dependent variable
(so dont know if it is the independent variable
causing the change)
81Research methods
82An Experiment FIGHTING INSOMNIA
- We want to determine if people who have trouble
sleeping (insomnia) can be helped by taking a
sleeping pill before going to bed.
83HYPOTHESIS
- X amount of sleeping pills helps the otherwise
healthy person with insomnia to sleep better.
84SUBJECTS
- The subjects of the experiment are two groups of
people in similar physical health, within the
same age range, and with similar sleep problems.
85INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
- This is the variable that the experimenter
changes. - The experimenter regulates the medicine, with
one group receiving genuine sleeping pill while
the other receives a placebo.
86DEPENDENT VARIABLES
- This is what results from the experimenters
varying or changing the independent variable. - The results can vary among better sleep, worse
sleep, and about the same amount of sleep.
87CONTROL
- This is the removal of factors other than the
independent variable that might cause the
results. - The experimenter will not use people who are
sick, people with severe allergies, or people who
are very old. - Any one of these factors could alter the real
effects of the medicine in the average person
with insomnia.
88CONTROL GROUP
- This group consists of subjects who are like
those in the experimental group except that they
do not participate in the crucial part of the
study. - The control group in this study consists of those
subjects who receive a placebo, thinking it is a
sleeping pill.
89EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
- These are the people who participate in the
crucial part of the study. - The experimental group consists of those subjects
who get X amount of sleeping pills.
90RESULTS
- Hypothesis is incorrect.
- We reject the hypothesis that those who receive
the sleeping pill will sleep better. - Subjects taking the sleeping pill over a period
of days will still have insomnia, only worse. - And the sleep they do get is less restful than
the sleep the control group gets.
91WHY?
92Dreamland..
Because, most tranquilizers and sleeping pills
interfere with dreams. They cause the person to
feel worse because without dreams, sleep loses
much of its curative effect.
93Step 5 Report the Findings
94Statistical Reasoning
95Statistical Reasoning
96Measures of Central Tendency
- Mode
- the most frequently occurring score in a
distribution - Mean
- the arithmetic average of a distribution
- obtained by adding the scores and then dividing
by the number of scores - Median
- the middle score in a chronological distribution
- half the scores are above it and half are below it
97Statistical Reasoning
98Measures of Variance
- Range
- the difference between the highest and lowest
scores in a distribution - Standard Deviation
- a computed measure of how much scores vary around
the mean - Statistical Significance
- a statistical statement of how likely it is that
an obtained result occurred by chance - IF IT IS STATISTICALLY SIG. IT IS NOT DO TO
CHANCE - .05 Significance Level, which means there is a
less than 5 in 100 chances that the result found
is due to chance
99Ethics in Experimentation
- American Psychological Association
- Obtain INFORMED CONSENT
- PROTECT from harm and discomfort
- DEBRIEF Fully explain research afterwards
- CONFIDENTIALITY of participant information
- Procedures with animals must minimize harm
- Host institutions for research must give prior
approval - Additional concerns include beneficence maximize
potential benefits
100Peer Review Scientific Articles
- Reading Group Discussion concerning NEW ethics
articles
101Secret of the Wild Child
- Were the experiments performed on Genie worth the
risk? ie already suffered abuse, should she
suffer further confinement/used as a test
subject/long hours in laboratory setting? - What were the problems with the experiment with
regards to research design, funding,
documentation, personal attachments or lack of? - Important contribution development of language
- Noam Chomsky (nature) and Eric Linenberg
(natures window), BF Skinner Language is
learned (nurture) imitation/observation
102Practice Test
- A tentative prediction about the relationship
between two variables is - A confounding of variables
- An operational definition
- A theory
- A hypthesis
103Practice Test
- 2. Researchers must describe the actions that
will be taken to measure or control each variable
in their studies. In order words, they must - a. provide operational definitions of their
variables - b. decide if their studies will be experimental
or correlational - c. use statistics to summarize their findings
- d. decide how many subjects should participate
in their studies
104Practice Test
- 3. A researcher found that clients who were
randomly assigned to same sex groups participated
more in group therapy sessions than clients who
were randomly assigned to coed groups. In this
experiment, the independent variable was - The amount of participation in the group therapy
session - Whether or not the group was coed
- The clients attitudes toward group therapy
- How much the clients mental health improved
105Practice Test
- 4. A researcher wants to see whether a
protein-enriched diet will enhance the
maze-running performance of rats. One group of
rats are fed the high-protein diet for the
duration of the study the other group continues
to receive ordinary rat chow. In the experiment,
the diet fed to the two groups of rats is the
_________ variable. -
- a. correlated
- b. control
- c. dependent
- d. independent
106Practice Test
- 5. In a study of the effect of a new teaching
technique on students achievement test scores,
an important extraneous variable would be the
students - a. hair color
- b. athletic skills
- c. IQ scores
- d. Sociability
107Practice Test
- 6. Whenever you have a cold, you rest in bed,
take aspirin, and drink plenty of fluids. You
cant determine which remedy is most effective
because of which of the following problems? - Sampling bias
- Distorted self-report data
- Confounding of variables
- Experimenter bias
108Practice Test
- 7. A psychologist monitors a group of
nursery-school children, recording each instance
of helping behavior as it occurs. The
psychologist is using - a. the experimental method
- b. naturalistic observation
- c. case studies
- d. the survey method
109Practice Test
- 8. Among the advantages of descriptive/correlation
al research is (are) -
- It allows investigators to isolate cause and
effect - It permits researchers to study variables that
would be impossible to manipulate - It can demonstrate conclusively that two
variables are causally related - Both a and b
110Practice Test
- 9. Which of the following correlation
coefficients would indicate the strongest
relationship between two variables? - .58
- .19
- -.97
- -.05
111Practice Test
- 10. When psychologists say that their results are
statistically significant, they mean that the
results - Have important practical application
- The sample is not representative of the
population - Two variables are confounded
- The effect of the independent variable cant be
isolated
112Practice Test
- 11. Sampling bias exists when
- The sample is representative of the population
- The sample is not representative of the
population - Two variables are confounded
- The effect of the independent variable cant be
isolated
113Practice Test
- 12. The problem of experimenter bias can be
avoided by - not informing participants of the hypothesis of
the experiment - Telling the subjects that there are no right or
wrong answers - Using a research strategy in which neither
subjects nor experimenter know which participants
are in the experimental and control groups - Having the experimenter use only nonverbal
signals when communicating with the participants
114Practice Test
- 13. Critics of deception in research have assumed
that deceptive studies are harmful to
participants. The empirical data on the issue
suggest that -
- Many deceptive studies do produce significant
distress for subjects who were not forewarned
about the possibility of deception - Most participants in deceptive studies report
that they enjoyed the experience and didnt mind
being misled - Deceptive research seriously undermines subjects
trust in others - Both a and c are the case
115Practice Test
- 14. PschINFO is
- A new journal that recently replaces
Psychological Abstract - A computerized database containing abstracts of
articles, chapters, and books reporting
psychological research - A reference book that explains the format and
techniques for writing journal articles - A computerized database containing information
about studies that have not yet been published
116Practice Test
- 15. Anecdotal evidence
- Is often concrete, vivid, and memorable
- Ends to influence people
- Is fundamentally flawed and unreliable
- Is all of the above
117Homework Review
118- 1. In an experiment, which of the following
variables refer to the outcome that is measured
by the experimenter? - (a) independent
- (b) dependent
- (c) control
- (d) random
- (e) Stimulus
- 2. Drawing a random sample of people from a town
for an interview study of social attitudes
ensures that - (a) each person in town has the same probability
of being chosen for the study - (b) an equal number of males and females are
selected for interviews - (c) the study includes at least some respondents
from every social class in town - (d) the study will uncover widely differing
social attitudes among the respondents - (e) the sample will be large enough even though
some people may refuse to be - interviewed
-
119- 3. A researcher asks elementary, junior high,
senior high, and college students to define the
term cheating, and analyzes differences in
their definitions across age groups. This is an
example of which type of study? - (a) longitudinal
- (b) sequential
- (c) cross-sectional
- (d) case study
- (e) observational
- 4.Which of the following research methods is
being used if the same subjects are tested at
two, four, and six years of age? - (a) Cross-cultural
- (b) Longitudinal
- (c) Cross-sectional
- (d) Correlation
- (e) Projective
120- 5.The most distinctive characteristic of the
experimental method is that it - (a) studies a few people in the great depth
- (b) studies subject in their natural environment
- (c) is an efficient way to discover how people
feel - (d) seeks to establish cause-effect
relationships. - (e) provides a chronological basis for reaching
conclusions. - 6. In Experimental psychology, a significant
difference refers to a - (a) difference not likely due to chance
- (b) difference not likely due to faulty design
- (c) result that indicates a correlation equal to
1.0 - (d) result that departs from previous findings
121- 7. A double-blind control is essential for which
of the following? - (a) a study comparing the IQ test scores of
children from different educational systems - (b) a study of relationships among family members
- (c) an experiment to determine the effect of a
food reward on the bar-pressing rate of a rat - (d) assessment of treatment designed to reduce
schizophrenic symptoms - (e) a survey of drug use among teenagers
- 8. A psychologist using the method of
naturalistic observation would - a. carefully design controlled situations in
which to observe behavior. - b. rely on observations of subjects' responses to
questionnaires. - c. observe behavior as it happens outside the
laboratory or clinic. - d. make records of the behavior of clients
treated in therapy.
122- 9. A teacher believes that one group of children
is very bright and that a second is below average
in ability. Actually, the groups are identical,
but the first group progresses more rapidly than
the second. This demonstrates - a. the self-fulfilling prophecy.
- b. the placebo effect in a natural experiment.
- c. observer bias in naturalistic observation.
- d. the ethical problems of field experiments.
- 10. Subjects are said to be assigned randomly
when - a. they are assigned to experimental and control
groups from a sample which is representative of
the larger population. - b. they each have an equal chance of being
assigned to either the experimental or control
group. - c. they are assigned to experimental and control
groups so that the groups differ on some critical
variable before the experiment begins. - d. neither the experimenter nor the subject knows
whether the subject is in the experimental or
control group. -