Unit 1: Approaches to Psychology

1
Unit 1 Approaches to Psychology

• Ch 1 Introducing Psychology
• Ch 2 Psychological Research Methods
  and Statistics

2
Ch 1 Introducing Psychology

• Psychology

• Scientific study of behavior mental processes.
• Covers everything people think, feel, do.
• Learning about psych can help you gain a better
  understanding of your own behavior, the behavior
  of other humans animals, give practical
  applications for enriching your life.
• People who study psych believe the study of
  behavior must be systematic. In other words, you
  cant just look at a small part of something, but
  must examine the whole.
• Elephant Story

3

• The goals of psych

• People who study psych have 4 goals
• 1. Describe need to describe or gain info about
  the behavior being studied present what is
  known
• 2. Explain want to know why
• A hypothesis is an educated guess
• A theory is a complex explanation based on
  findings from a large of experiments
• 3. Predict the behavior, thoughts, feelings
  of humans or just the behavior of animals
• 4. Influence try to modify behavior in
  beneficial ways

4

• Psych as a science

• Basic science is research studying something
  simply to gain knowledge.
• Applied science involves using research to solve
  problems or accomplish goals.
• Physiological having to do w/ an organisms
  physical processes
• Ex Eating or sleeping
• Cognitive having to do w/ an organisms
  thinking understanding
• To conduct an accurate psych experiment, the
  scientific method is used. Its an approach to
  science requiring logical procedure for gathering
  testing ideas
• 1. Start w/ problem or ? from an observation
• 2. Form a hypothesis (assumption)
• 3. Test hypothesis in an experiment
• 4. Analyze data to reach a conclusion

5
(No Transcript)
6
Is it basic science or applied
science? _________ 1. Studying why some people
snore _________ 2. Comparing test results of
girls and boys _________ 3. Going through a 12
step program _________ 4. Researching why cats
purr _________ 5. Counseling a victim of sexual
abuse _________ 6. Training a dog to come when
a whistle blows _________ 7. Studying the
effects of violent movies on kids _________ 8.
Examining the mating habits of pandas
Basic
Basic
Applied
Basic
Applied
Applied
Basic
Basic
End Section 1
7

• Origins of psych

• During the 1600s, philosophers promoted the idea
  of dualism (belief that mind body are separate
  distinct).
• Rene Descartes disagreed said that a link
  existed b/w them. He reasoned that the mind
  controlled the bodys movements, sensations,
  perceptions.
• Believed that to understand human behavior, you
  had to study how the mind body influence each
  other to create a persons experiences.
• Phrenology (the practice of examining bumps on a
  persons skull to determine that persons
  intellect character traits) became an important
  practice in the US in the mid 1800s.
• Although it has since been discredited, its
  important b/c it encouraged study of the role of
  the brain in influencing human behavior instead
  of the heart.

8

• Historical approaches to psych

• Structuralism A structuralist is someone who
  studies the basic elements that make up conscious
  mental experiences. It involves introspection
  which is a method of selfobservation in which
  participants report their thoughts feelings.
• Wilhelm Wundt is acknowledged as establishing
  modern psych as a separate, formal field of
  study. He was very interested in the human mind
  used a systematic procedure to study human
  behavior. He was a structuralist.
• Functionalism A functionalist studies how
  animals people adapt to their environments.
• William James (the father of psychology)
  speculated that thinking, feeling, learning,
  remembering, serve one major function to help
  us survive as a species.

9

• Inheritable Traits heredity refers to the
  genetic transmission of characteristics from
  parents to their offspring. Sir Francis Galton
  noticed that greatness tended to run in families.
  He concluded genius is therefore a hereditary
  trait.
• He failed to take into account other factors such
  as the environment (for ex, wealthy people can
  often provide better educational opportunities
  for their children).
• His writings raised the ? of whether behavior is
  determined by nature or nurture.
• Gestalt Psych this belief states that
  perception is more than the sum of its parts it
  involves the whole pattern.
• They study how sensations are assembled into
  perceptual experiences.

10

• Modern approaches to psych

• Psychoanalytic Focuses on the unconscious mind.
  Developed by Sigmund Freud, a psychoanalyst (a
  psychologist who studies how unconscious motives
  conflicts determine human behavior). He
  believed that beneath our conscious surface are
  primitive biological urges that conflict w/ the
  requirements of society these urges are
  responsible for most human behavior.
• He developed a technique for studying the
  unconscious known as free association, in which
  the patient said everything that came to mind w/o
  any editing.
• He also believed dreams are expressions of
  primitive urges used dream analysis.
• His view of the importance of the unconscious
  mind remains controversial.

11

• Behavioral behaviorists stress investigating
  observable behavior. They believe that
  psychology should only concern itself w/ the
  observable facts of behavior.
• Ivan Pavlov pioneered behavioral psych in his
  famous dog conditioning experiment.
• B.F. Skinner introduced the concept of
  reinforcement (a response to a behavior that
  the likelihood that the behavior will be
  repeated).
• Humanistic humanists believe that each person
  has freedom in directing his/her future
  achieving personal growth.
• Believe that humans arent controlled by the
  environment or the unconscious.
• Also believe that everyone is unique.

12

• Cognitive cognitivists focus on how we process,
  store, use info how the info influences our
  thinking, language, problem solving,
  creativity.
• Believe behavior is more than a simple response
  to a stimulus its influenced by a variety of
  mental processes.
• Biological psychobiologists study how the
  brain, nervous system, hormones, genetics
  influence our behavior.
• Emphasize biology (duh!)
• Sociocultural involves studying the influence
  of cultural ethnic similarities differences
  on behavior.
• Study the attitudes, values, beliefs, social
  norms of different ethnic groups.
• Believes that gender socioeconomic status
  impact our behavior mental processes.

13
End Section 2
14

• Psych as a profession

• Psychologists are people who are trained to
  observe, analyze, evaluate behavior.
• A psychiatrist is a person who has completed
  medical school continues into psychiatric
  medicine they can treat people w/ behavior
  disorders prescribe medicine operate on
  patients. Psychiatry is a branch of medicine
  NOT of psych!
• Clinical psychologists diagnose treat people w/
  emotional disturbances.
• Counseling psychologists advise assist people
  w/ the problems of everyday life help people
  adjust to challenges.
• Developmental psychologists study physical,
  emotional, cognitive, social changes that occur
  as an individual matures.

15

• Educational psychologists are concerned w/
  helping students learn by focusing on
  intelligence, memory, problem solving
  motivation.
• Community psychologists work w/ mental health or
  social welfare agencies.
• Industrial/organizational psychologists study
  ways to boost production, improve working
  conditions, place applicants in jobs, train
  people, reduce accidents.
• Experimental psychologists study sensation,
  perception, learning, motivation, emotion in
  carefully controlled laboratory conditions.
• The American Psychological Association (APA) is a
  scientific professional society of
  psychologists. It works to advance the science
  profession of psych to promote human welfare.

End Section 3
16
Ch 2 Psychological Research Methods and
Statistics

• Pre-research decisions

• Researchers must begin by asking a specific ?
  about a limited topic or hypothesis.
• Next they must look for evidence. B/c they cant
  study an entire population, they must select a
  sample (a relatively small group out of the total
  population under study).
• A sample must be representative of the population
  under study. There are 2 ways to ensure the
  sample is representative of the population
• 1. Take a purely random sample (like drawing
  names from a hat).
• 2. Deliberately pick individuals who represent
  all of the various subgroups in the population
  being studied.

17

• Methods of research

• Naturalistic observation research method in
  which the psychologist observes the subject in a
  natural setting w/o interfering.
• Researcher must avoid disturbing the people or
  animals under study b/c they may change their
  habits if they are aware of the researcher.
• Case studies research method that involves an
  intensive investigation of one or more
  participants.
• B/c only a few people are studied, a single case
  study doesnt prove anything. However, they can
  generate new hypotheses that researchers can
  test.
• Surveys research method in which information is
  obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set
  of ?s.
• May consist of interviews /or questionnaires.

18

• Longitudinal studies research method in which
  data is collected about a group of participants
  over a of years to assess how certain
  characteristics change or not during development.
• Time-consuming participants may quit the study.
• Ideal way to examine consistencies
  inconsistencies of behavior over time.
• Cross-sectional studies research method in which
  data is collected from groups of participants of
  different ages compared so conclusions can be
  drawn about differences due to age.
• Less expensive then longitudinal studies
  the amount of time needed for the study.

19

• Correlations

• Sometimes, instead of looking for cause effect,
  researchers look for correlations (measures of a
  relationship b/w 2 variables or sets of data).
  ONE DOES NOT CAUSE THE OTHER TO CHANGE.
• A positive correlation would occur if both
  variables or .
• Ex Grades IQ
• A negative correlation would be if one variable
  the other .
• Ex Grades absences.

20

• Experiments this research method allows the
  researcher to control the situation eliminate
  (or at least limit) unwanted variables from
  influencing the result.
• Every experiment has a hypothesis which specifies
  the important variables in the study.
• Variables are conditions behaviors that are
  subject to change. There are 2 types
• 1. Independent variables are variables a
  researcher changes so they can observe its
  effects.
• 2. Dependent variables are variables that
  change b/c of a change in the independent
  variable.
• Participants exposed to the independent variable
  are in the experimental group. Participants not
  exposed to the independent variable, but
  otherwise treated the same are in the control
  group.
• Results must be able to be replicated repeatedly
  in order to be considered valid.

21

• Ethical issues

• Ethics are the methods for conduct or standards
  for proper responsible behavior.
• The APA published a set of ethical principles
  including the following
• Psychologists must
• plan research to minimize the possibility of
  misleading results.
• be responsible for the welfare dignity of the
  participants.
• obey all laws professional standards.
• only use deception if no better alternative is
  available. NO deception about negative aspects
  EVER.
• One common ethical debate is over the use of
  animals in research. Some oppose it as cruelty
  to animals while others support it for the
  knowledge gained that reduces human suffering.

End Section 1
22

• Self-fulfilling prophecy

• Having expectations about a behavior then
  acting in some way, usually unknowingly, to carry
  out that behavior.
• It can lead a researcher to influence the
  experiment in such a way as to alter the
  participants behavior thus change the outcome
  of the experiment.
• Might only be a nod or a frown.
• B/c good research must be unbiased, researchers
  have developed ways of trying to avoid creating a
  self-fulfilling prophecy in experiments.

23

• Avoiding a self-fulfilling prophecy

• A placebo is a substitute for a drug that has no
  medicinal benefits.
• In a single-blind experiment, a psychologist
  would give the control group a placebo the
  experimental group a drug neither group would
  know who got the drug who didnt.
• The participants are blind.
• In a double-blind experiment, the control group
  would be given a placebo the experimental group
  a drug neither group NOR the psychologist would
  know which got the drug.
• The participants the psychologist are blind.
  
• The researcher can remain unbiased.
• Read p.46 The Case of Clever Hans

24

• The Milgram experiment

• P.43-45
• During 1960s, Stanley Milgram wanted to determine
  whether participants would administer painful
  shocks to others just b/c an authority figure
  told them to.
• It was a study on peoples responsiveness to
  authority.
• Almost 1,000 male participants were told the
  study was on how punishment affected learning.
• Participants, the teachers, were told to
  administer an electric shock to the learners
  when they answered incorrectly.
• Shocks werent real but learners acted as if in
  severe pain.
• 65 of the teachers administered the full shock
  possible b/c they were told to.
• The experiment has been repeated w/ similar
  results.

25

• The placebo effect

• A change in a patients illness or physical state
  that results solely from the patients knowledge
  perceptions of the treatment.
• So medically speaking, there is no reason for the
  patient to get better. But b/c the patient
  believes they are given medicine, they sometimes
  report feeling better after receiving a placebo.
• They think themselves better.

End Section 2
26

• Statistics

• A branch of mathematics that enables researchers
  to organize evaluate data they collect.
• Can be used to distort the truth (ex. p.47) or to
  validly support a hypothesis.
• Descriptive statistics is the listing
  summarizing of data in a practical, efficient
  way.
• Graphs tables are examples of descriptive
  statistics created by experimenters after
  collecting the data.
• Frequency distribution is a way of arranging data
  so we know how often a particular observation
  occurs.
• A normal curve is a graph of frequency
  distribution shaped like a symmetrical,
  bell-shaped curve a graph of normal
  distribution.
• These curves are symmetrical if a large
  population is used..
• Ex. Height, weight, IQ, etc

27

• Measures of central tendency

• Central tendency is a that describes something
  about the average score of a distribution.
• There are 3 types
• Mean mathematical average
• Median middle score
• Mode most common score
• Given the follow set of s, determine the mean,
  median mode
• 36,45,63,70,72,77,77,82,85,85,85,90,95
• Mean
• 74
• Median
• 77
• Mode
• 85

End Section 3