English Grammar 101

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English Grammar 101

• A Review of the Essentials
• David A. deSilva

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Parts of Speech

• Nouns
• Pronouns
• Verbs
• Adjective
• Adverbs
• Prepositions
• Conjunctions
• Interjections

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Parts of Speech (2)

• Nouns words that name persons, places, things,
  or ideas
• Pronouns words that stand in for a noun
• Verbs words that express action or state of
  being
• Adjectives words that describe nouns or pronouns
• Adverbs words that describe verbs
• Prepositions words that connect a noun and its
  modifiers to another component of the sentence
• Conjunctions words that join nouns, verbs, or
  other parts of a sentence
• Interjections words that express emotion, shock,
  and the like.

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Parts of a Sentence

• Every sentence has a subject and a predicate.
• The subject is the noun or the pronoun that the
  sentence says something about
• The predicate is what is said about that noun or
  pronoun, i.e., what that noun does or what that
  noun is.
• Jesus wept. (John 1135 NIV)
• Jesus is the subject the sentence is about
  Jesus.
• wept is the predicate what is said about
  Jesus.

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Subjects and Predicates

• And no one in heaven or on earth or under the
  earth was able to open the scroll or to look into
  it. (Rev 53 NRSV)
• no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth
  is the subject the main subject would be one
  the rest is composed of modifiers (or
  descriptors)
• was able to open the scroll or to look into it
  is the predicate the main predicate would be
  was the remaining words are complements and
  objects.

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Subjects and Predicates (2)

• When he had taken the scroll, the four living
  creatures and the twenty-four elders fell before
  the Lamb, each holding a harp and golden bowls
  full of incense, which are the prayers of the
  saints. (Rev 58 NRSV)
• The subject is in italics all the rest is
  predicate (when he had tells when the elders
  fell).
• Predicates can be split up subjects do not
  always come first.
• In this sentence, we find a compound subject
  (more than one subject) (1) creatures and (2)
  elders.

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Subjects and Predicates (3)

• And the elders fell down and worshiped. (Rev
  514b NRSV)
• In this example, we find a compound predicate
  the subject governs more than one verb (1)
  fell down and (2) worshiped
• Then I saw between the throne and the four
  living creatures and among the elders a Lamb
  standing as if it had been slaughtered, having
  seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven
  spirits of God sent out into all the earth. (Rev
  56 NRSV)
• In this example, the subject is one word I

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Subjects and Predicates (4)

• Sentences starting with there or it these
  words are often used as a kind of place marker
  for the real subject of a sentence.
• There will be earthquakes in various places
  there will be famines. (Mk 138 NRSV)
• Grammatically speaking, the sentence is
  Earthquakes will be will occur in various
  places famines will be will happen. The
  grammatical subjects are earthquakes and
  famine, not there and there.

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Subjects and Predicates (5)

• But in these sacrifices there is a reminder of
  sin year after year. (Heb 103 NRSV)
• Grammatically speaking, the sentence is But a
  reminder of sins is in these sacrifices year
  after year. The real subject is reminder.
• It is senseless to give a pledge, to become
  surety for a neighbor. (Prov 1718 NRSV)
• Grammatically speaking to give a pledge is the
  subject (to become surety for a neighbor is set
  in apposition). To give a pledge is senseless.

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Complements

• Alongside the verb, the predicate often contains
  other essential parts of the sentence. These may
  include
• Direct objects
• Indirect objects
• Predicate nominatives
• Predicate adjectives

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Complements (2)

• Direct Objects and Indirect Objects occur with
  action verbs
• The direct object receives the impact of the
  action. Put another way, the subject enacts the
  verb upon the direct object.
• I baptize you with water for repentance. (Mt
  311 NRSV). The subject (I) enacts the verb
  (baptize), but it is the direct object (you)
  that gets dunked. ?

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Complements (3)

• He went and took the scroll. (Rev 57 NRSV)
• The Lamb (he) does the going and taking the
  scroll is the object affected by the Lambs
  actions. The scroll is the direct object.
• Bear fruit worthy of repentance. (Mt 38 NRSV)
• In this imperative sentence, fruit is the thing
  that has to be borne it is the direct object of
  the command, bear.

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Complements (4)

• Indirect Objects nouns or pronouns that are the
  indirect recipients of the action, often the
  beneficiaries of the action (to or for whom
  the action happens).
• By your blood you ransomed for God saints from
  every tribe and language and people and nation.
  (Rev 59 NRSV).
• The subject is you the main verb of the
  predicate, ransomed, saints are the ones
  actually ransomed, hence the direct object.
  God is the indirect object the ransoming of
  the saints has an indirect effect on God, for
  whom the action happens.

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Complements (5)

• God is able from these stones to raise up
  children to Abraham. (Matt 39 NRSV)
• Looking at the infinitive to raise up, the
  direct object of the infinitive is children,
  the entities actually raised up the indirect
  object is Abraham, to whom (i.e., in whose
  favor) these children are raised up.

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Complements (6)

• Predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives
  occur with verbs expressing being or a state of
  being (also called linking verbs).
• God is able (Matt 39 NRSV).
• Subject God verb is able is a predicate
  adjective. The whole point of the sentence is to
  link God with this quality, or predicate this
  quality upon God.

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Complements (7)

• You are worthy to take the scroll and to open
  its seals. (Rev 59 NRSV)
• Subject you main verb are worthy is
  another predicate adjective (followed by two
  complementary infinitives, to take and to
  open, further describing this worthiness).
• No one was found worthy to open the scroll or to
  look into it. (Rev 54 NRSV)
• worthy is still a predicate adjective, since
  was found ( was proven to be) is still a
  state of being verb.

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Complements (8)

• Jesus Christ is Lord (Phil 211 NRSV)
• Subject Jesus Christ main verb is Lord
  is a noun that is being predicated of Jesus
  Christ it is a predicate nominative.
• Sometimes a direct object can also have a
  complement in the form of an adjective or noun
  predicated, in effect, upon it.
• You have made them a kingdom and priests to our
  God. (Rev 510 ESV)
• them is the direct object, but a kingdom and
  priests is also specifically what God made
  them the phrase is an object complement.

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Kinds of Sentences

• Declarative sentences stating something (whether
  fictive or real, narrative or argument).
• I began to weep bitterly because no one was
  found worthy to open the scroll or to look into
  it. (Rev 54 NRSV)
• Interrogative sentences asking a question (thus
  calling for some declarative statement in
  response).
• Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its
  seals? (Rev 52 NRSV)

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Kinds of Sentences (2)

• Sometimes an interrogative statement is in
  transposed word order the subject is most easily
  found when one reformulates the question as a
  statement.
• What did you go out into the wilderness to look
  at? (Mt 117 NRSV)
• What is not the subject it is, in fact, the
  object of the preposition at. The subject is
  you You did go out into the wilderness to
  look at ____.

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Kinds of Sentences (3)

• Imperative sentences that issue commands.
• Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come
  near. (Mt 32 NRSV)
• Bear fruit worthy of repentance. (Mt 38 NRSV)
• "Do not weep. (Rev 55 NRSV)
• In all these examples the subject You is not
  expressed, but is understood. Repent, you, for
  the kingdom.

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Kinds of Sentences (4)

• There are 1st and 3rd person commands as well, in
  which the subject will be expressed.
• 1st person plural Let us hold fast to our
  confession. (Heb 414 NRSV)
• 3rd person singular Let him who is without sin
  among you be the first to throw a stone at her.
  (Jn 87 ESV)
• 3rd person plural If any want to become my
  followers, let them deny themselves and take up
  their cross and follow me. (Mt 1624 NRSV)

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Nouns

• Words that denote a person, place, thing, or idea
• Can be proper nouns (e.g., Peter, Judea) or
  common nouns (e.g., disciple, region)
• Can have number singular, disciple plural,
  disciples (note usually there is a change of
  form)
• Special ending for possessive/genitive case the
  Lords day, the nations tribute

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Nouns

• 6 Then I saw between the throne and the four
  living creatures and among the elders a Lamb
  standing as if it had been slaughtered, having
  seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven
  spirits of God sent out into all the earth.
• 7 He went and took the scroll from the right
  hand of the one who was seated on the throne.

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Nouns

• 6 Then I saw between the throne and the four
  living creatures and among the elders a Lamb
  standing as if it had been slaughtered, having
  seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven
  spirits of God sent out into all the earth.
• 7 He went and took the scroll from the right
  hand of the one who was seated on the throne.

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Pronouns

• Words used in place of a proper or common noun.
  A pronoun generally has an antecedent a
  specific noun named earlier in the discourse for
  which the pronoun is standing in.

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Personal Pronouns

• Personal pronouns have person, number, and
  case.
• Singular (nominative) I (1st) , you (2nd) , he,
  she, it (3rd)
• Plural (nominative) we (1st) , you (2nd) , they
  (3rd)
• Singular (objective) me, you, him, her, it
• Plural (objective) us, you, them

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Personal Pronouns

• And I began to weep bitterly because no one was
  found worthy to open the scroll or to look into
  it.
• Then one of the elders said to me, "Do not weep.
  See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of
  David, has conquered, so that he can open the
  scroll and its seven seals."

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Personal Pronouns

• And I began to weep bitterly because no one was
  found worthy to open the scroll or to look into
  it.
• Then one of the elders said to me, "Do not weep.
  See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of
  David, has conquered, so that he can open the
  scroll and its seven seals."

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Possessive Pronouns

• Singular mine, yours, his, hers, its
• Plural ours, yours, theirs
• He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins, and
  not for ours our sins only but also for the
  sins of the whole world. (1 John 22)
• My beloved is mine and I am his. (Song 216)

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Possessive Pronouns vs. Possessive Adjectives

• Pronouns stand in for nouns he atoned not
  only for their sins, but ours. Ours stands in
  for the noun sins.
• Adjectives describe nouns he atoned for our
  sins. Our describes a noun in the sentence.

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Intensive and Reflexive Pronouns

• Singular myself, yourself, himself, herself,
  itself
• Plural ourselves, yourselves, themselves
• Intensive He himself was not the light, but he
  came to testify to the light. (John 18)
• Reflexive "Is he going to kill himself? Is that
  what he means by saying, 'Where I am going, you
  cannot come'? (John 822)

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Definite Relative Pronouns

• Introduce subordinate clauses that, as a whole,
  function as adjectives (supplying additional
  information about some noun or pronoun). As with
  most pronouns, the definite relative pronoun
  points back to some antecedent (some noun to
  which it is referring)
• Who, whom (objective case of who), whose
  (possessive case of who), which/that

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Relative Clauses

• The relative pronoun introduces a relative clause
  with a verb and, often, objects, modifiers, and
  prepositional phrases. The entire clause
  modifies some noun or pronoun in the main
  sentence (the antecedent of the relative
  pronoun).
• A relative clause generally could have been
  written as a separate sentence
• You love Lazarus.
• Lazarus is sick.
• He Lazarus whom you love is sick. (John 113)

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Relative Pronouns (and relative clauses)

• He went and took the scroll from the right hand
  of the one who was seated on the throne.
• This is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah
  spoke. (Matt 33)
• I baptize you with water for repentance, but one
  who is more powerful than I is coming after me,
  whose sandals I am not worthy to carry. (Matt
  311)

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Indefinitive relative pronouns

• The relative pronoun can also be used where there
  is no antecedent, sometimes generalized
  (whoever, whatever)
• Whoever denies me before others, I also will
  deny before my Father in heaven. (Matt 1033)
• Remember then what you received and heard (Rev
  33)

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Interrogative Pronouns

• Used to ask questions no antecedent
• Who? What? Which?
• Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its
  seals? (Rev 52)

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Demonstrative Pronouns

• Used to point out particular objects.
• This, these that, those
• Nearer demonstratives this, these
• Farther demonstratives that, those

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Demonstrative Pronouns

• This this person is the one of whom the
  prophet Isaiah spoke. (Matt 33)
• Then one of the elders addressed me, saying, "Who
  are these these people, robed in white, and
  where have they come from? (Rev 713)
• Blessed are those those people who mourn,
  for they will be comforted. (Matt 54)

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Indefinite Pronouns

• These pronouns do not refer to specific persons
  or things, but rather to general types or
  classes.
• Anyone, anybody, anything someone, somebody,
  something everyone, everybody, everything none,
  nobody, nothing all, few, many, several, etc.

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Indefinite Pronouns

• Blessed is anyone who takes no offense at me.
  (Matt 116)
• The kingdom of heaven may be compared to someone
  who sowed good seed in his field. (Matt 1324)
• For many are called, but few are chosen. (Matt
  2214)

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Reciprocal Pronouns

• Pronouns indicating that the individual members
  of a collective subject act back on other members
  of the group.
• One another, each other
• I give you a new commandment, that you love one
  another. (John 1334)
• What are you discussing with each other while
  you walk along? (Luke 2417)

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Appositives

• Nouns or pronouns can be used simply to rename
  another noun or pronoun in the sentence. The
  second noun or pronoun is said to stand in
  apposition to the first, and is like a
  parenthetical comment.
• A Savior, Christ, the Lord, is born for you
  today in Davids city (Luke 211)
• Paul and Timothy, servants of Jesus Christ, to
  all the saints. (Phil 11)
• Ananias came down with some elders and an
  attorney, a certain Tertullus, and they reported
  their case against Paul. (Acts 241)

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Verbs

• Action
• Jesus wept.
• I saw a mighty angel.
• He went and took the scroll.
• State of being
• no one was able.
• You are worthy.

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Verbs (2)

• English verbs are often formed by a combination
  of one or more helping verbs with a main
  verb.
• The Lion has conquered.
• You were slaughtered.
• They will reign on earth.
• Helping verbs are an essential part of the
  formation of the various voices, tenses, and
  aspects of the English verb.

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Helping Verbs Listed

• Common Helping Verbs
• Do, does, did
• Has, have, had
• Am, are, is, were, was, be, being, been
• Modal Helping Verbs
• Can, could
• May, might
• Must
• Shall, should, ought to
• Will, would

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Verbs Person and Number

• 1st Person
• Singular I heal.
• Plural We heal.
• 2nd Person
• Singular You heal.
• Plural You (Yall) heal.
• 3rd Person
• Singular He, she, it heals.
• Plural They heal.

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Verbs Voice

• Active The subject of the sentence performs the
  action of the verb, often upon one or more
  objects.
• He went and took the scroll.
• They will reign on earth.
• Passive The action of the verb is done to the
  Subject of the sentence.
• You were slaughtered.
• They were baptized by him in the river Jordan.

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Verbs Tense(all examples are in active voice)

• Present
• Simple I baptize.
• Progressive I am baptizing.
• Past
• Simple I baptized.
• Progressive I was baptizing.
• Future
• Simple I will baptize.
• Progressive I will be baptizing.

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Verbs Tenses (2)

• Present Perfect
• Simple I have baptized.
• Progressive I have been baptizing.
• Past Perfect (Pluperfect)
• Simple I had baptized.
• Progressive I had been baptizing.
• Future Perfect
• Simple I will have baptized.
• Progressive I will have been baptizing.

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Verbs Tenses (Passive Examples)

• Present
• Simple I am baptized.
• Progressive I am being baptized.
• Past
• Simple I was baptized.
• Progressive I was being baptized.
• Future
• Simple I will be baptized.
• Progressive I will be being baptized. (Not
  regularly used.)

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Verbs Tenses (Passive Examples)

• Present Perfect
• Simple I have been baptized.
• Progressive N/A
• Past Perfect (Pluperfect)
• Simple I had been baptized.
• Progressive N/A
• Future Perfect
• Simple I will have been baptized.
• Progressive N/A

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Verbs Moods

• Indicative Narrating Facts or Purported Facts
• John was baptizing in the Jordan River.
• Imperative Giving Commands
• Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is near.
• Subjunctive Unreal Situations
• "If this man were a prophet, he would have known
  who and what sort of woman this is who is
  touching him, for she is a sinner."
  (Luke 739 ESV)

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Verbal Forms

• Infinitives the bare form of the verb
• Present Active (time contemporary with or
  subsequent to main verb) To heal, to save,
  to call
• Present Passive To be healed, to be saved,
  to be called
• Perfect Active (time prior to main verb) To
  have healed, to have loved
• Perfect Passive To have been healed, to have
  been loved
• Stative To be, to have been

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Infinitives Uses

• As a noun
• Subject of verb To live is Christ, and to die
  is gain. (Phil 121 ESV)
• What is?
• Object of verb I want to know Christ. (Phil
  310 NRSV)
• I want what?

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Infinitive Uses (2)

• As an adjective
• By faith Sarah herself received power to
  conceive. (Heb 1111 NRSV)
• The infinitive answers the question what kind of
  power?

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Infinitive Uses (3)

• As an adverb
• Abraham obeyed when he was called to go out.
  (Heb 118 NRSV)
• Supplies more information about the verb called
• God is not ashamed to be called their God. (Heb
  1116)
• Supplies more information about the adjective
  ashamed, perhaps giving the circumstances

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Participles

• Active baptizing
• While baptizing by the river, John was arrested.
• Passive baptized
• Baptized by John, Peter and Andrew went out to
  preach.
• Participles can form additional voices and tenses
  with helping verbs, e.g.
• Perfect Active having baptized
• Having baptized many, Johns reputation spread.
• Perfect Passive having been baptized
• Having been baptized by John, the tax collectors
  repented.

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Participles Usage

• Adjectival Participial Clauses the participles
  describes some noun or pronoun
• I saw in the right hand of the one seated on the
  throne a scroll written on the inside and on the
  back, sealed with seven seals (Rev 51 NRSV)
• The participle seated introduces a clause that
  further describes the one the participles
  written and sealed introduce clauses giving
  additional information describing the scroll.

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Participles Usage (2)

• Adverbial Participial Clauses the participle
  gives more information about the action of the
  main verb
• These all died in faith, not having received the
  things promised, but having seen them and greeted
  them from afar, and having acknowledged that they
  were strangers and exiles on the earth. (Heb
  1113 NRSV)
• not having received and having seen and
  greeted and having acknowledged all describe
  under what circumstances these all died.
• They were baptized by him in the river Jordan,
  confessing their sins. (Matt 36 NRSV)
• Confessing supplies information about the
  circumstances under which the people were being
  baptized.

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Gerunds (Participles acting as Nouns)

• The gerund looks like the present participle in
  form baptizing, seeing, healing
• As a gerund, however, the word acts as a simple
  noun, naming the particular action.
• To me, living is Christ and dying is gain (Phil
  121 NRSV).
• Living and Dying are both fulfilling the role
  of nouns as subjects of the verb is.

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Verbals and their Complements

• Participles, Infinitives, and Gerunds can take
  all the complements that a normal verb can take
• Adverbs
• Direct Objects
• Indirect Objects
• Adverbial Prepositional Phrases
• Predicate Nominatives

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Adjectives

• Words used to describe nouns or pronouns.
  Adjectives are words that answer questions like
  what kind of ____? or which _____? or how
  many _____?
• Attributive Adjectives (simple descriptors)
• Then I saw in the right hand of the one seated on
  the throne a scroll written on the inside and on
  the back, sealed with seven seals and I saw a
  mighty angel proclaiming with a loud voice, Who
  is worthy to open the scroll and break its
  seals? (Rev 51-2 NRSV)

63
Adjectives (2)

• Predicate Adjectives the point of the sentence
  is to link a noun or pronoun with a descriptor by
  means of a linking verb (a form of be, become,
  etc.)
• No one in heaven or on earth or under the earth
  was able to open the scroll (Rev 53)
• No one S was V able Pred Adj
• No one was found worthy. (Rev 54)
• You are worthy to take the scroll. (Rev 59)

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Adjectives (3)

• Substantive Adjectives Adjectives can be used as
  nouns, as in the title, The Good, the Bad, and
  the Ugly.
• Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the
  earth. Blessed are the merciful, for they will
  receive mercy. (Mt 55, 7 NRSV)
• meek and merciful are actually adjectives.
  Here it is understood that Jesus is talking about
  those who are meek or the meek ones.

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Adjectives (4)

• Adjectives have degrees
• Positive holy, righteous, good
• you are my strong refuge (Ps 717)
• Comparative holier, more righteous, better
• And the LORD made his people stronger than
  their enemies (Ps 10524)
• Superlative holiest, most righteous, best
• The anger of God rose against them and he killed
  the strongest of them (Ps 7831)

66
Adverbs

• Adverbs are words that give more information
  about the action of the sentence i.e., the verb
  or about an adjective or even another adverb.
  Adverbs often answer questions like
• How?
• Why?
• Where?
• When?
• Under what circumstances?
• To what degree or extent? (This is the sense in
  which adverbs generally describe adjectives and
  other adverbs.)
• Adverbs often, but do not always, end in -ly

67
Adverbs (2)

• I began to weep bitterly because no one was
  found worthy to open the scroll or to look into
  it. (Rev 54 NRSV)
• How was John weeping?
• I know you are enduring patiently and bearing up
  for my name's sake. (Rev 23 ESV)
• How are the believers enduring?
• When the disciples heard this, they were greatly
  astonished. (Matt 1925 NIV)
• To what extent were the disciples astonished?

68
Adverbs (3)

• Like adjectives, adverbs can be compared
• Positive bitterly
• Comparative more bitterly
• Superlative most bitterly
• Irregular comparisons also exist
• Well, better, best
• Little, less, least
• Badly, worse, worst

69
Caution When adverbs look like prepositions

• And when he had looked around at everything, as
  it was already late, he went out to Bethany with
  the twelve. (Mark 1111).
• Around is often used as a preposition, as in I
  heard the voice of many angels around the throne
  (Rev 511 NASU). In Mk 1111, however, around
  describes the action of looking Where did
  Jesus look?

70
Prepositions

• Prepositions stand before a noun or pronoun (and
  its descriptors) to create a prepositional
  phrase.
• The entire prepositional phrase will describe
  some other noun or pronoun in the sentence
  (acting adjectivally) or the verb in the clause
  to which it is related (acting adverbially).

71
Prepositions (2)

• Some common prepositions in prepositional phrases
  (from Mt 31-12)
• in the wilderness
• from the coming wrath
• to yourselves
• at the root
• of the trees
• into the granary
• with unquenchable fire

72
Common Prepositions

• About, above, according to, across, after,
  against, along, alongside of, among, around,
  at, because of, before, behind, below, beneath,
  beside(s), between, beyond, by, concerning,
  despite, down, during, except, for, from, in,
  inside, instead of, into, like, near, of, off,
  on, out of, over, past, since, through,
  throughout, to, together with, toward, under,
  underneath, until, unto, up, upon, up to, with,
  within, without

73
Prepositions (3)

• I tell you, God is able from these stones to
  raise up children to Abraham. Even now the ax is
  lying at the root of the trees every tree
  therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut
  down and thrown into the fire. (Mt 39-10 NRSV)
• Adverbial prepositional phrases
• from these stones (giving information about the
  raising)
• to Abraham (ditto)
• at the root (where is the ax lying?)
• into the fire (where is it being thrown?)
• Adjectival prepositional phrase
• of the trees (giving information about what
  root)

74
Prepositions (4a)

• Then I saw in the right hand of the one seated
  on the throne a scroll written on the inside and
  on the back, sealed with seven seals. And no one
  in heaven or on earth or under the earth was able
  to open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 51,
  3 NRSV)

75
Prepositions (4b)

• Then I saw in the right hand adv. where saw?
  of the one adj. describes what hand seated on
  the throne adv. where seated? a scroll written
  on the inside adv. how or where written? and
  on the back adv., sealed with seven seals
  adv. sealed by what means or how?. And no one
  in heaven adj. describes one or on earth
  adj. or under the earth adj. was able to open
  the scroll or to look into it adv. look
  where?. (Rev 51, 3 NRSV)

76
Caution

• Many words that can function as prepositions can
  also function as other parts of speech!
• Since can be a preposition, conjunction, or
  adverb
• To can be a preposition (to the river), or it
  can be part of an infinitive (to come, to
  sing, to look)
• FUNCTION determines what a word is in a given
  context

77
Conjunctions

• Conjunctions are used to link words or phrases
  together (coordinating conjunctions), set them in
  relationship to one another (correlative
  conjunctions), or subordinate one clause to
  another, usually giving some indication of the
  logical relationship between those clauses
  (subordinating conjunctions).

78
Conjunctions (2)

• Coordinating Conjunctions and, or, but, so, yet
• No one in heaven or on earth or under the earth
  was able to open the scroll or to look into it.
  Rev 53 NRSV)
• The first two conjunctions link three
  prepositional phrases together as one overarching
  unit of modifiers describing one
• The last conjunction links two infinitives,
  connecting both as complements to was able

79
Conjunctions (3a)

• You are worthy to take the scroll and to open
  its seals, for you were slaughtered and by your
  blood you ransomed for God saints from every
  tribe and language and people and nation. (Rev
  59 NRSV)

80
Conjunctions (3b)

• You are worthy to take the scroll and to open
  its seals, for you were slaughtered and by your
  blood you ransomed for God saints from every
  tribe and language and people and nation. (Rev
  59 NRSV)
• The first and links two infinitives as
  complements to worthy (worthy of what?)
• The second and links two clauses as part of the
  rationale introduced by for (you were
  slaughtered and you ransomed)
• The last three occurrences of and link four
  nouns as the common objects of the preposition
  from

81
Conjunctions (4)

• Correlative (bothand, neithernor, not only
  but also, eitheror)
• At that time his voice shook the earth, but now
  he has promised, Yet once more I will shake not
  only the earth but also the heavens. (Heb 1228
  ESV)
• The not onlybut also coordinates earth and
  heaven as twin objects of the verb shake,
  while also establishing a stronger relationship
  between the two objects.
• Store up for yourselves treasures in heaven,
  where neither moth nor rust consumes and where
  thieves do not break in and steal. (Matt 620
  NRSV)
• neither and nor link moth and rust as two
  subjects of the verb consumes.

82
Conjunctions (5)

• Subordinating Conjunctions (when, while, after,
  before, since where whether as, as if
  because though, although if, unless so, so
  that, in order that as as rather than)
• Used to connect noun or adverb clauses to some
  other element in the sentence

83
Conjunctions (6)

• And I began to weep bitterly because no one was
  found worthy to open the scroll or to look into
  it. Then one of the elders said to me, Do not
  weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the
  Root of David, has conquered, so that he can open
  the scroll and its seven seals. Then I saw
  between the throne and the four living creatures
  and among the elders a Lamb standing as if it had
  been slaughtered, having seven horns and seven
  eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out
  into all the earth. (Rev 54-6 NRSV)
• because introduces a subordinate clause
  specifying CAUSE
• so that introduces a subordinate clause
  specifying RESULT
• as if introduces a subordinate clause
  specifying MANNER

84
Conjunctive Adverbs

• Not to be confused with subordinating
  conjunctions, these adverbs can also be used to
  indicate the relationship between independent
  clauses
• Accordingly, also, anyway, besides, certainly,
  consequently, conversely, finally, furthermore,
  hence, however, incidentally, indeed, instead,
  likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless,
  next, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly,
  specifically, still, subsequently, then,
  therefore, thus

85
Interjections

• Words usually expressing surprise or emotion,
  drawing attention to something or some
  experience.
• And those who passed by derided him, wagging
  their heads and saying, Aha! You who would
  destroy the temple and rebuild it in three days,
  save yourself, and come down from the cross!
  (Mk 1529-30 ESV)
• His disciples said, "Ah, now you are speaking
  plainly and not using figurative speech! (Jn
  1629 ESV)

86
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses

• Clauses groups of related words containing a
  subject and a verb.
• Independent (or main) clauses An independent
  clause expressed a grammatically complete thought
  and can stand alone as a complete sentence.
• John the Baptist appeared in the wilderness of
  Judea. (Matt 31 NRSV)
• John wore clothing of camel's hair with a
  leather belt around his waist, and his food was
  locusts and wild honey. (Matt 33 NRSV) a
  compound of two independent clauses.

87
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (2)

• Dependent (subordinate) clauses these clauses
  are not complete sentences, but must always be
  attached to a main (independent) clause.
• because no one was found worthy to open the
  scroll or to look into it. (Rev 54 NRSV)
• so that he can open the scroll and its seven
  seals. (Rev 55 NRSV)
• as if it had been slaughtered. (Rev 56 NRSV)
• In each of these three examples, there is a
  subject (bold) and verb (italic), but none can
  stand as a complete sentence.

88
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (3)

• By faith Sarah herself received power to
  conceive, even when she was past the age, since
  she considered him faithful who had promised.
  (Heb 1111 NRSV)
• By faith Sarah herself received power to
  conceive. (Main clause could stand alone as a
  complete sentence)
• even when she was past the age (Subordinate
  clause)
• since she considered him faithful who had
  promised (Subordinate clause)

89
Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (4)

• Phrases
• These are related groups of words that do not
  contain both a subject and a verb, e.g.,
  prepositional phrases and participial phrases.
• in the right hand
• of the one
• seated on the throne
• sealed with seven seals
• proclaiming with a loud voice
• having seven horns and seven eyes
• into all the earth

90
Functions of Subordinate Clauses

• Adjectival (most often involving relative clauses
  introduced by relative pronouns)
• This is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah
  spoke. (Matt 33 NRSV)
• Every tree therefore that does not bear good
  fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire.
  (Matt 510 NRSV)
• One who is more powerful than I is coming after
  me. (Matt 511 NRSV)
• These can be introduced also by where, when,
  why, and whose
• He has risen. Come and see the place where he
  lay. (Matt 286 NIV) Still answers the
  question, What place?

91
Functions of Subord. Clauses (2)

• Adverbial
• Temporal (when does the action of the main clause
  take place?)
• When he had taken the scroll, the four living
  creatures and the twenty-four elders fell before
  the Lamb. (Rev 58 NRSV)
• Location (where does the action of the main
  clause take place?)
• You knew that I reap where I have not sowed and
  gather where I scattered no seed. (Matt 2526
  ESV)
• Manner (by what means or in what manner does the
  action of the main clause take place?)
• I saw a Lamb standing as if it had been
  slaughtered. (Rev 56 NRSV)

92
Functions of Subord. Clauses (3)

• Cause (for what reason does the action of the
  main clause take place?)
• I began to weep bitterly because no one was
  found worthy to open the scroll or to look into
  it. (Rev 54 NRSV)
• Concession (despite what does the action of the
  main clause take place?)
• Although he was a son, he learned obedience from
  what he suffered. (Heb 58 NIV)
• Condition (under what circumstances would the
  action of the main clause take place?)
• If anyone hears my voice and opens the door, I
  will come in and eat with him, and he with me.
  (Rev 320 NIV)

93
Functions of Subord. Clauses (4)

• Purpose (to what end does the action of the main
  clause take place?)
• They watched Him, and sent spies who pretended
  to be righteous, in order that they might catch
  Him in some statement. (Luke 2020 NASU)
• Result (to what effect did the action of the main
  clause take place?)
• The Lion of the tribe of Judah has conquered,
  so that he can open the scroll and its seven
  seals. (Rev 55 NRSV)

94
Functions of Subord. Clauses (5)

• Noun Clauses the clause as a whole plays a role
  usually assigned to a noun (like subject, direct
  object, object of a preposition).
• When he heard that Archelaus was reigning over
  Judea in place of his father Herod, he was afraid
  to go there. (Matt 222 ESV) the whole that
  clause is the direct object of he heard
• What you sow must die before it is given new
  life (1 Cor 1536 NJB) What you sow
  functions, as a whole, as the subject of the
  sentence.
• Note because noun clauses often play an integral
  role in the main clause, they are often not
  separable from the main clause (as adjectival and
  adverbial clauses are).