Do We Have an Achievement Gap, or is it Really an Instructional Gap?

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Do We Have an Achievement Gap, or is it Really an
Instructional Gap?

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Achievement is Up, But Gaps Remain
Although there have been some improvements in
mathematics and science for 4th and 8th graders,
the achievement gap has stayed constant or
widened since 1990.

National Center for Education Statistics.
(2005). NAEP trends. U.S. Department of
Education, National Assessment of Educational
Progress. http//nces.ed.gov
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The foremost explanations given for achievement
differentials today are Cultural and/or Class
Poverty Student Oppositional Identity
Alienation Deficit Theories Low Teacher
Expectancy

Wiggan, G. (2007). Race, school achievement,
and educational inequality Toward a
student-based inquiry perspective. Review of
Educational Research, 77(3), 310-333.
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The Achievement Gap
It could be that the central issue pertaining to
student achievement might have to do with
differential quality of education, which
reproduces social and economic inequality.

Wiggan, G. (2007). Race, school achievement,
and educational inequality Toward a
student-based inquiry perspective. Review of
Educational Research, 77(3), 310-333.
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The Achievement Triangle
Teaching
Achievement
Curriculum/Policies
Culture/Economics
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Opportunity to Learn
Opportunity to learn is widely considered the
single most important predictor of student
achievement. Defined by the National Research
Council as circumstances that allow students to
engage in and spend time on academic tasks (p.
333).

National Research Council. (2001). Adding it
up Helping children learn mathematics. J.
Kilpatrick, J. Swafford, B. Findell (Eds.).
Mathematics Learning Study Committee, Center for
Education, Division of Behavioral and Social
Sciences and Education. Washington, D.C.
National Academy Press.
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Opportunity to Learn Two Distinct Aspects

1. Curriculum Policy and Students Course-Taking
   Options How much math and which courses.
2. How much thinking is called for in the classroom?
   the cognitive demand of the learning tasks.

AERA. (2006). Do the math Cognitive demand
makes a difference. Research Points Essential
Information for Education Policy, 4(2).
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Curriculum Policy and Students Course-Taking
Options

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Closing the Achievement Gap Policies and
Practices
In the United States, much of the educational
research has attributed differences among ethnic
groups academic achievement to race and
socioeconomic status. In contrast, other
countries cite content coverage opportunity to
learn as the major contributor of differential
achievement.

Stevens, F. I. (2003). Implementing
opportunity-to-learn assessment strategies and
standards. In B. Williams (Ed.), Closing the
achievement gap A vision for changing beliefs
and practices (pp.25-47). Alexandria, VA ASCD.
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Ability Grouping Beyond Gifted/AP Exacerbates the
GAP
Numerous studies have found minimal effects for
most forms of ability grouping and special
education. A major issue is whether students in
these categories, groupings, and tracks have
equal access to high-quality curriculum,
teachers, and learning experiences.

Manning, J. B., Kovach, J. A. (2003). The
continuing challenges of excellence and equity.
In B. Williams (Ed.), Closing the achievement
gap A vision for changing beliefs and practices
(pp.25-47). Alexandria, VA ASCD.
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Eliminating Low-Level Courses
Some school districts that have adopted a policy
that all ninth-graders take algebra typically
have eliminated general mathematics, consumer
mathematics, and pre-algebra courses. Research
suggests that this is a positive step toward
raising standards for all students, and a
direction that should lead to greater equity for
students who have traditionally (and
disproportionately) occupied the lower-level
courses.

RAND Mathematics Study Panel. (2003).
Mathematics proficiency for all students Toward
a strategic research and development program in
mathematics education. Santa Monica, CA RAND.
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Tracking Persists in New Forms
Although many schools have done away with
traditional three-track sorting, hidden forms of
tracking persist. In one common situation,
students are divided by perceived ability under
the same course label. For example, an algebra
course might sort students into fast and slow
speeds of learning, so that by the end of the
year students in the same class have not had the
same opportunity to learn.

AERA. (2006). Do the math Cognitive demand
makes a difference. Research Points Essential
Information for Education Policy, 4(2).
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Slowing Down the Opportunity to Learn Does not
Work
Slowing down student course-taking is what
average-impact schools typically do, but it
limits their ability to continue in the college
prep course of study and keeps them from catching
up.
Education Trust. (2005). Gaining traction,
gaining ground How some high schools accelerate
learning for struggling students. Washington,
DC Education Trust.
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We Need to Learn to Intervene without Slowing Down
Interventions must combine practice in material
not yet mastered with instruction in new areas
Yet the need for remediation cannot be allowed to
exclude these students from instruction in new
ideas It is perfectly appropriate, even
advisable, to group those students who do not
understand a concept or skill, find the time to
reteach the concept or skill, and provide
additional practice. At the same time those
students should be participating with a more
heterogeneous mix of students in regular
classroom instruction.

Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials
Commission. (2006). Mathematics Framework for
California Public Schools Kindergarten through
Grade Twelve (2005 edition). Sacramento, CA
California Department of Education.
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Instructional Interventions that Make a Difference
Frequent monitoring (at least weekly) of student
progress. Results of frequent assessment are
used to form small groups of students for
instruction, practice, and reinforcement in the
skills and concepts with which they are
struggling. Small group support takes place in
addition to whole class instruction.
Baker, S., Gersten, R., Lee, D. (2002). A
synthesis of empirical research on teaching
mathematics to low-achieving students. The
Elementary School Journal, 103(1), 51-73.
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Level Up and Accelerate
A longitudinal study of over 1,000 low-achieving
and at-risk 6-8 grade students found that
students placed in heterogeneous universal
acceleration courses with workshop support had
greater gains in achievement and continued to
enroll in upper level math courses at greater
rates than those placed in traditional remedial
courses that slowed down instruction. This
finding confirms earlier studies at the
elementary level.

Burris, C.C., Heubert, J.P., Levin, H.M.
(2006). Accelerating mathematics achievement
using heterogeneous grouping. American
Educational Research Journal, 43(1), 105-136 .
Bloom, H.S., Ham, S., Melton, L., OBrient, J.
(2001). Evaluating the accelerated schools
approach A look at early implementation and
impacts on student achievement in eight
elementary schools. New York Manpower
Demonstration Research Corporation.
Finnan, C., Swanson, J.D. (2000).
Accelerating the learning of all students.
Boulder, CO Westview Press.
Levin, H. M. (1997). Raising school
productivity An x-efficiency approach.
Economics of Education Review, 16, 303-312.
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The New 3-Rs Reteaching, Relearning, Reassessing

• In effective schools one of the most consistent
  practices of successful teachers is the provision
  of multiple opportunities to learn The
  consequences for a student who fails to meet a
  standard is not a low grade but rather the
  opportunity, indeed the requirement to resubmit
  his or her work.

Reeves, D., Standards are Not Enough Essential
Transformations for School Success. NASSP
Bulletin, Dec. 2000, 11.
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Time Must Become the Variable, Not Learning
Time and support must become variables. Some
students will require more time to learn, and so
the school must develop strategies to provide
students with that time during the school day.
Some students will require more support for
learning. They may never learn the concept in
the classroom setting, and so the school must
develop systems to provide them with small group
or one-on-one tutorials until they have achieved
mastery.
DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Eaker, R., Karhanek,
G.. (2004). Whatever it takes How professional
learning communities respond when kids dont
learn. Bloomington, IN National Education
Service. p. 35.
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Achievement Gaps are a Function of Course Taking
When African American and White students complete
the same mathematics courses, the differences in
average achievement gains are statistically
insignificant. Additionally, there are no
statistically significant differences in
achievement between high- and low-SES students
who complete the same courses.

Hoffer, T. B., Rasinski, K. A., Moore, W.
(1995). Social background differences in high
school mathematics and science coursetaking and
achievement. Washington, DC U.S. Department of
Education.
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The Importance of Persisting in the Curriculum
Of all pre-college curricula, the highest level
of mathematics in secondary school has the
strongest continuing influence on bachelors
degree completion. Finishing a course beyond
Algebra 2 more than doubles the odds that a
student who enters post-secondary education will
complete a bachelors degree.
Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the toolbox
academic intensity, attendance patterns, and
bachelors degree attainment. (Office of
Educational Research and Improvement
Publication.) http//www.ed.gov/pubs/Toolbox/Titl
e.html
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Creating Opportunity

Students whose parents did not attend college
more than doubled their chances of enrolling in
4-year colleges if they took high school
mathematics courses beyond Algebra 2.
Horn, L., Nunez, A. (2000). Mapping the road
to college First-generation students
mathematics track, planning strategies and
context support. (NCES Publication No. 2000-153).
Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Education.
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Never Has it Been More Essential that We Address
the Gap
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The Future of the Society we Live in Depends More
than Ever on Reaching All Students
Because the economy can no longer absorb
unskilled workers at decent wages, lack of
education is increasingly linked to crime and
welfare dependency no society in a
knowledge-based world can long prosper without
supporting a thinking education for all its
people. A societal infrastructure disintegrates,
both economically and socially, when large
numbers of individuals cannot become productive
citizens.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). 2006 DeWitt
Wallace-Readers Digest Distinguished Lecture
Securing the right to learn Policy and practice
for powerful teaching and learning. Educational
Researcher, 35(7), 13-24.
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Our Future
Our future will be increasingly determined by our
capacity and our will to educate all children
well a challenge we have very little time to
meet if the United States is not to enact the
modern equivalent of the fall of Rome.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2007). The flat earth and
education How Americas commitment to equity
will determine our future. Educational
Researcher, 36(6), 318-334.
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Its Not What You Say, Its What People Hear

Achievement Gap
Luntz, F. (2007). Words that work Its not
what you say, its what people hear. New York
Hyperion.
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We Know What Makes a Difference
Despite ongoing hand-wringing about the
persistence of the achievement gap, much is known
about critical components of schools that make a
difference in achievement. These include
access to challenging curriculum, which
ultimately determines a greater quotient of
students achievement than their initial ability
levels and schools and classes that are
organized so that students are well known and
well supported.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). 2006 DeWitt
Wallace-Readers Digest Distinguished Lecture
Securing the right to learn Policy and practice
for powerful teaching and learning. Educational
Researcher, 35(7), 13-24.