History of Modern American Science and Technology Session 4

1
History of Modern American Science and
TechnologySession 4

• How to Write a Paper in English

2
Revising Sentences

• As a student in science, I am pleasant to see
  science and technology get so much attention.

3
QAs

• Why did Groves push scientists so hard?
• He felt that it was his duty, but also success
  would help his career
• Why did the US drop the second bomb?
• The idea was to drop two quickly so to create the
  impression that the US had many more. In fact
  the third one was about two weeks ago and many
  felt that the US should have waited longer.

4
Paper Topics

• Changes in Americans Science Optimism
• Changes in American Attitudes toward Science and
  Technology
• Pick two or three different periods Great
  Depression, 1945, 2009?
• Apollo Project
• Landing on the Moon How Americans Reacted to
  Apollo Project

5

• Lawrence and the Atomic Bomb
• www.aip.org/history
• Should We Be More Optimistic Than Rachel
  Carson?
• How scientists viewed Carson in the 1960s and
  now?
• http//www.tianyabook.com/zhexue/silent/index.html
  ??????????

6

• Obamas new attitude on science
• Obamas views on science from the beginning of
  his election campaign to now
• Chinese American physicist C. S. Wu
• What Were Brought Up by Genetic Engineering and
  Stem Cell?

7
Citation Style by Zuoyue Wang based on
TurabianNote Footnote style is different from
that of bibliography. 
8
A. Footnotes

• Books
• 1Anthony Brundage, Going to the Sources A Guide
  to Historical Research and Writing (Wheeling, IL
  Harlan Davidson, 1997), 56. If the city of
  publication is well-known, such as New York, you
  do not need to give the name of the state. 
• 2Brundage, Going to the Sources, 58. Use last
  name and abbreviated title for subsequent
  citations this rule applies to articles too.
•  
• Articles in a scholarly journal
• Zuoyue Wang, Responding to Silent Spring
  Scientists, Popular Science Communication, and
  Environmental Policy in the Kennedy Years,
  Science Communication 19, no. 4 (December 1997)
  142.

9

• Articles in a scholarly journal accessed from an
  online database
• Peter Neushul and Zuoyue Wang, Between the Devil
  and the Deep Sea C. K. Tseng, Mariculture, and
  the Politics of Science in Modern China, Isis
  91, no. 1 (March 2000) 59-88, accessed on JStor
  online database in April 2004.
•  
• Articles in an edited book
• William Kirby, Engineering China Birth of the
  Developmental State, 1928-1937, in Becoming
  Chinese Passages to Modernity and Beyond, ed.
  Wen-Hsin Yeh (Berkeley and Los Angeles
  University of California Press, 2000), 140.
•  
• Oral history interview
• Interview with Chang-lin Tien by Zuoyue Wang,
  March 19, 1999, Berkeley, CA.
•  
• Newspaper and popular magazine articles or
  letters to the editor
• Ralph Vartabedian, U.S. Funnels Billions to
  Science to Defend Against Terrorism, Los Angeles
  Times, March 7, 2004, A1.
• Robert Parker, Clooneys Juvenilia, letter to
  the editor, The Record (Bergen County, NJ),
  October 9, 2005, O.03. If accessed on the web,
  see above
•  
• Website
• Anon. to J. Edgar Hoover on Albert Einstein,
  April 21, 1953, available from FBI Freedom of
  Information Act Reading Room, Albert Einstein,
  Part 7, http//foia.fbi.gov/einstein/einstein7a.pd
  f, accessed in October 2003.
•  

10
B. Bibliography

• Brundage, Anthony.  Going to the Sources A Guide
  to Historical Research and Writing.  Wheeling,
  IL Harlan Davidson, 1997. (Ctrl t in Word
  for hanging indent.)
• Kirby, William.  Engineering China Birth of the
  Developmental State, 1928-1937.  In Becoming
  Chinese Passages to Modernity and Beyond, ed.
  Wen-Hsin Yeh, 137-160.  Berkeley and Los Angeles
  University of California Press, 2000.
• Vartabedian, Ralph. U.S. Funnels Billions to
  Science to Defend Against Terrorism. Los Angeles
  Times, March 7, 2004, A1.
• Wang, Zuoyue.  Responding to Silent Spring
  Scientists, Popular Science Communication, and
  Environmental Policy in the Kennedy Years.
  Science Communication 19, no. 4 (December 1997)
  141-163.  Notice that there is a period after
  the article title and that here you give the
  inclusive page numbers of the article.

11
Checklist of Tips on Writing History Papers

• 1. Place a period or comma before, not after, the
  closing quotation mark but keep footnote no.
  outside of the quote
• Wrong  This is the wrong way to place the
  closing quotation mark and the period or comma
  1.  Right     This is the right way.1
•  
• 2. Page Numbers Be sure to insert page numbers
  for every page of your paper, except for p. 1 if
  you use cover sheet.
•  
• 3. Make sure that you distinguish between these
  words
• knew vs. new    know vs. now    there vs.
  their    where vs. were
• its (Its a great paper.) vs. its (Its page
  numbers are missing.)
• to (To write is to re-write.) vs. too (You can
  never have too many revisions.)
•  
• 4. Make sure that you italicize book or
  journal/magazine titles (Time) put article
  titles in quotes.

12

• 5. Use subsection headings (bold, centered) if
  the paper is five pages or longer.
•  
• 6. History students generally should learn to use
  footnotes.  But in some cases you can use in-text
  citations, for example, in exam essays.  Use the
  following style for in-text citations in
  combination with a bibliography There is, quite
  simply, no such thing as a definitive treatment
  of any topic. (Brundage, 55)
•  
• 7. Plagiarism Avoid copying other authors words
  or ideas without citations avoid long quotes.
•  
• 8. In general, use quotes from your primary
  sources but paraphrase ideas from secondary
  sources and provide corresponding citations. 
  Its often desirable to have a paragraph or more
  of historiographical discussion (what arguments
  other scholars have made on your topic) and how
  your own thesis statement agrees or disagrees
  with the existing views within the first page or
  two of the paper.

13

• 9. Follow a chronological order in your
  narrative its easier for you to handle and for
  the reader to follow.
•  
• 10. Try to write a topical sentence at the
  beginning of each paragraph and make sure that
  they flow well from one to the other.
•  
• 11. For most history papers you should be able to
  use both primary sources (published or
  unpublished correspondence, government records,
  newspaper and magazine articles, oral history
  interviews) and secondary works by other
  scholars.  The JStor database and
  www.historycooperative.org are perhaps the best
  sources to find scholarly articles on history
  topics.  Avoid using only one source for long
  sections of your paper.
•  

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• 12. How to write essay exams Be sure to address
  all aspects of the examination question.  You can
  usually give a direct answer to the question in
  the first paragraph or two, then develop your
  argument in the body of the essay by providing
  examples, quotations, or other types of evidence
  for each period or for each group of people you
  cover.  Be sure to relate all your specific
  pieces of evidence to your main argument as
  articulated in the first paragraph.  You should
  then briefly summarize your argument in the last
  paragraph and can usually conclude the essay by
  offering some personal reflections on what you
  have learned and whats been most striking to you
  in studying this topic.
•  
• 13. If you have any questions regarding the
  writing process, discuss them with your
  instructor.

15
The Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster
1986Melissa MizukamiHistory 408 Fall 2005

• I've always had great faith in and respect for
  our space program. And what happened today does
  nothing to diminish it. We don't hide our space
  program. We don't keep secrets and cover things
  up. We do it all up front and in public. That's
  the way freedom is, and we wouldn't change it for
  a minute. We'll continue our quest in space.
  There will be more shuttle flights and more
  shuttle crews and, yes, more volunteers, more
  civilians, more teachers in space. Nothing ends
  here our hopes and our journeys continue.1
  That poignant excerpt was from President Ronald
  Reagans address on the sudden and tragic loss of
  the space shuttle Challenger. The day was January
  28, 1986 and the explosion killed all seven
  astronauts aboard. The event horrified America
  and the loss shook NASAs manned space program to
  its core. Not only would the storied space agency
  have to mourn the loss of good friends, but they
  would have to prepare themselves to answer some
  very serious questions. How did things go so
  terribly wrong? Though this question was on the
  forefront another question loomed large. Would
  the American public continue to support NASA
  after Challenger?

16
2nd paragraph

• Though Americans were initially distraught and
  shocked by the shuttle accident, a majority
  expressed the sentiment President Reagan did in
  his Challenger address the hopes and journeys of
  Americas space program must go on. Despite
  having witnessed the explosion of Challenger and
  the ensuing deaths of seven astronauts, the
  American public continued to strongly support the
  space program. To expand on this sentiment I will
  first discuss the history of the space shuttle,
  and the pre-flight and flight day activities that
  led to the accident. Next I will talk about the
  desire the families of the Challenger crew felt
  to press forward in space exploration and why
  they believed so strongly to do so. Then Ill
  discuss the major support Americans expressed for
  the continuation of the space program after
  Challenger and what their reasons were behind it.
  Subsequently I will talk about the steps that
  were taken to find the cause of the explosion,
  what was done to eradicate further disaster and
  the public opinion of NASAs manned space program
  today. And lastly I will discuss how the
  Challenger accident relates to the history of
  American technology in terms of how it
  contradicts the view that accidents like these
  are a major detriment in Americans enthusiasm
  for technology.

17
3rd paragraph

• The Space Shuttle concept was first envisioned in
  the 1960s during the height of the Apollo
  spacecraft, to be used after the Apollo program
  was retired. The configuration of the final
  product was made in March 1972.2 The new
  shuttle included the Orbiter, an expendable
  external fuel tank which carried liquid
  propellants for the Orbiters engines and two
  Solid Rocket Boosters which were recoverable.3
  The shuttle would be reusable, unlike the Apollo
  spacecraft which was discarded after every
  flight, and would be used for transporting cargo
  into space.4 From the beginning the shuttle
  program flew perfectly, and missions to low-earth
  orbit became routine. Astronauts Francis R.
  Scobee, Michael J. Smith, Judith A. Resnik,
  Ellison Onizuka, Ronald E. McNair, Gregory
  Jarvis, and teacher S. Christa McAuliffe were
  assigned to mission STS 51-L. 51-Ls mission
  objectives centered on the deployment of a
  tracking data relay satellite and a Halleys
  Comet experiment.5 The night before launch
  temperatures were unusually cold and engineers
  expressed concern regarding the cold weather
  effects on the boosters of the shuttle. The
  launch temperature was outside their operation
  specifications and the cold weather could pose a
  safety hazard to the joint rotation and o-ring
  seating of the shuttle.6 Despite discussing the
  risks involved, management decided the engineers
  data was inconclusive and approved the launch. On
  launch day the mid morning weather at Cape
  Canaveral was the coldest on which NASA had ever
  attempted to launch a manned spacecraft.7 The
  seven astronauts boarded the shuttle in the early
  Florida morning and at 1138 am the shuttle began
  its ascent.8 The space shuttle reached an
  altitude of 50,800 feet and was 7 nautical miles
  down range from the launch site when a brilliant
  glow was seen on one side of the external fuel
  tank.9 Within seconds it grew into a gigantic
  fireball and without warning exploded in the
  mid-morning sky breaking into pieces and falling
  to the ocean. Screams of horror rose from
  thousands of watchers. Families of the crew
  looked at the scene in disbelief, unable at first
  to comprehend what they were seeing.10 Within
  73 seconds of liftoff the space shuttle
  Challenger, and its seven crew members, were
  lost.           
• Though their lives were forever changed the day
  Challenger exploded, the families of the shuttle
  crew expressed a strong desire that space
  exploration carry on. But having experienced such
  deep personal loss what were the reasons behind
  their hopes of continuing the space program?
  "Space flight serves as an outlet for our human
  need to learn and expand," the families wrote in
  a statement. "What's out there will make our
  lives better on earth and help satisfy mankind's
  natural curiosity to explore and push the borders
  of the known universe.11 The families saw the
  inherent need for people to explore freely and
  without walls or barriers. They knew this because
  they saw it within the seven astronauts they
  loved and cared so much about. June Scobee
  Rodgers, wife of the late Dick Scobee, said you
  can't pick up a cell phone and talk without
  thinking about space exploration benefiting us,
  or an MRI at a hospital or new opportunity for
  energy. It's all derived from space
  exploration.12 The families were aware of the
  strength behind Americas technology and NASA.
  But the families didnt just feel space
  exploration should go on because of the human
  need to learn and expand. They also supported the
  space program because it symbolized the legacy of
  the seven crew members. The Challenger families
  stated So that their lives were not lost in
  vain, we must rededicate ourselves to the
  exploration of space and to keep the dream
  alive."13 They did this by opening a center for
  children to be educated on space exploration. The
  Challenger Center, which originated in Houston,
  Texas and has since grown to 30 centers all over
  the country, was intended to keep the memory of
  the seven astronauts alive and provide a lasting
  legacy by encouraging young children to study
  math and science and one day explore space the
  way their loved ones did.14 When the next
  shuttle mission, following Challenger, was ready
  to launch the families issued a statement saying
  The Challenger mission will continue so long as
  our nation explores new horizons and passes on
  the knowledge gained to our children.15

18

• Lastly, the families of the Challenger crew
  supported the continuation of the manned space
  program because they knew the wishes of their
  loved ones would be that space exploration
  continues.16 In a statement issued on the one
  year anniversary of Challenger the families of
  the crew reflected, saying If they were alive
  and could speak to all Americans, we believe the
  Challenger crew would say this Do not fear risk.
  All exploration, all growth is a calculated risk.
  Without frontiers, civilizations stagnate.
  Without challenge, people cannot reach their
  highest selves.17 They believed the crew did
  not risk their lives for aimless adventure, but
  rather to pay tribute to the nation that gave
  them opportunity in which space exploration was
  an extension of.18 Grace Corrigan, the mother
  of teacher astronaut Christa McAuliffe did not
  want that enthusiasm to die. She said the
  astronauts knew of the risks involved in
  spaceflight but also knew of the good it did to
  mankind to explore and discover new things. If
  we didn't continue, they would have died in
  vain."19 Though the grief and pain of the
  Challenger families remained deep they stayed
  loyal to space exploration because it was space
  exploration that symbolized the hopes and dreams
  of those who perished.   

19

• Despite the horror and anguish felt on the day
  Challenger took its final flight, the American
  public stayed strong to the concept of space
  exploration. According to an article by Karlyn
  Bowman of the American Enterprise on Public
  Policy Research website 80 percent of Americans
  felt the shuttle program should continue
  post-accident.20 Of the teachers who applied
  for NASA's Teacher in Space program, only a
  modicum withdrew their applications after the
  accident, while hundreds more added their names
  to the list.21 Americans supported space
  exploration because they felt the need for man to
  discover science and introduce new cures and
  inventions to the American psyche. Pat Smith who
  was nominated to be part of the Teacher in
  Space program believed that humans have such a
  distinct need to discover. She believed that the
  human spirit strives to improve the lives of
  others as well as discovering new medicines and
  technology such as the pacemaker and fire suits
  which were both derived from space. 22 Every
  day, in a variety of ways, American lives are
  touched by space technology. According to the
  Ottawa Sun since 1976, about 1,400 documented
  NASA inventions have benefited U.S. industry,
  improved the quality of life and created jobs for
  Americans.23 House Science Committee Chairman
  James Sensenbrenner voted for the International
  Space Station since 1984 because he supported the
  human exploration of space and wanted scientists
  to have the new research opportunities it
  presented.24

20

• To many Americans, the Apollo program helped
  change the way of life in America, especially in
  health care. Some of the inventions contributed
  by the Apollo program include a kidney dialysis
  machine that was developed as a result of a NASA
  chemical process that could remove toxic waste
  from used dialysis fluid.25 Another NASA
  contribution was a medical CAT scanner that
  searches the human body for tumors or other
  abnormalities.26 Many Americans saw these
  medical inventions and their improvements in
  society as a reason for their support towards the
  continuation of the space program. Another reason
  Americans embraced the idea of continuing the
  space program was the same reason the families of
  the crew wanted to continue on humanities inner
  need to explore. Astronaut Dr. William Thornton
  who flew on Challenger in 1983 and 1985 believed
  strongly in discovering new horizons. "The real
  reason for going into space is to expand our
  knowledge. There is something in man that will
  keep him going over the next hill, and space is
  the next big hill." "I don't know what we are
  going to find, but neither did the explorers who
  launched off in their boats centuries ago.''27
  To this day the horrific vision of Challenger
  exploding in the mid-morning air is vivid to many
  Americans, but it represented how vital space
  exploration is to mankind.
•            

21

• After an extensive investigation the cause of
  Challengers explosion was the failure of an
  O-ring seal in the solid-fuel rocket on the
  shuttles right side.28 The faulty design of
  the seal coupled with the unusually cold weather,
  let hot gases leak through the joint.29 The
  space shuttle program was grounded until after
  the Space Shuttle Challenger Commissions
  investigation. NASA management implemented
  stricter regulations in terms of safety and
  quality control and shuttle designers made
  several modifications.30 Shuttle missions
  resumed on September 28, 1988, with the flight of
  the shuttle Discovery and all remained safe until
  February 1, 2003 when the space shuttle Columbia
  broke up during re-entry.31 Although the loss
  brought back memories of Challenger, Americans
  support for the space program remained high and
  does remain high today.32 Their reasons
  continue to be the desire for human exploration
  and reaching unknown horizons.33 

22

• Despite the pain and tragedy of losing 7
  astronauts the Challenger explosion did not cause
  a detriment in Americans enthusiasm for
  technology. History has proven that the
  exploration of the unknown poses a risk, but it
  has also shown that those risks have created some
  of the most technologically advanced systems in
  the world.34 They have created jobs, new
  industries, and a new way of life.35 Mark
  Byrnes of Politics and Space Image Making by NASA
  says that NASA bolsters American national pride,
  national prestige, national strength (both
  military and economic) and peaceful international
  relations.36 Though there were dissenting
  opinions on the continuation of the space program
  the majority really just felt that the space
  program needed a new resolve towards safety. One
  of the major reasons that the public gained a
  strong technological enthusiasm toward the space
  program and space exploration after Challenger
  was the investment NASA made in dedicating
  themselves to be safer. People began to be more
  enthused about the shuttle program when they saw
  the amount of work and effort that was put into
  making the shuttle safer.37 After seeing
  Challenger explode the culture of America
  changed, not because it feared for the safety of
  those who embraced exploration, but because
  continuing on despite the risks inevitably
  defined heroism and changed humanity.38   

23

• President Reagan believed deeply in continuing on
  the exploration of space, the families of the
  Challenger crew believed deeply in continuing on
  and Americans believed deeply in continuing on.
  They all saw the benefits associated with the
  exploration of space, and in a larger sense the
  exploration of the unknown. They believed so
  strongly in the space program because they saw
  mans innate need to discover new horizons as
  well as the scientific advancement it provided to
  humanity. Also it became the legacy of the brave
  Challenger 7, who themselves would never have
  wanted the dedication of exploration to have
  stopped after their untimely deaths. Human
  exploration is a risk, it always has been and it
  always will be. It is a sentiment President
  Reagan deeply conveyed to the children of
  America. I know it is hard to understand, but
  sometimes, painful things like this happen. It's
  all part of the process of exploration and
  discovery. It's all part of taking a chance and
  expanding man's horizons. The future doesn't
  belong to the fainthearted it belongs to the
  brave. The Challenger crew was pulling us into
  the future, and we'll continue to follow
  them.39

24
Bibliography

• Borentstein, Seth. Families Fulfilling Vision of
  Challenger Astronauts Creates Living Memorials,
  The Record (Bergen County, N.J.), Jan 28, 1996,
  A11. http//0-proquest.umi.com.opac.library.csupom
  ona.edu80/pqdweb?did57992309sid11Fmt3client
  Id17860RQT309VNamePQD
•  
• Bredeson, Carmen. The Challenger Disaster Tragic
  Space Flight. New Jersey Enslow Publishers,
  Inc., 1999.
•  
• Broken Arrow School District, Columbia Shuttle
  Tragedy Hits Close to Home for BAPS Teachers,
  available from http//www.ba.k12.ok.us/NewBAPage/c
  olumbia.html, accessed on November 10, 2005.
•  
• Brown, Karlyn.  Ashcroft's Positive Rating Down
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  Research website http//www.aei.org/publications/p
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  November 17, 2005.
•  
• Byrnes, Mark. Politics and Space Image Making by
  NASA. Westport, CT Praeger, 1994.
•  
• Challenger Explosion Left Nation Gasping in
  Disbelief, Houston Chronicle, July 30, 2001,
  available from http//www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl
  /first100/968621.html,  accessed October 8, 2006.
•  
• CNN, Challenger Widow Rejuvenated with Space
  Exploration, January 28, 2004, available from
  http//edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/space/01/28/cnna.
  scobee.rodgers/ accessed on November 12, 2005.
•  
• Greene, Nick. NASA Inventions Benefiting Our
  Daily Lives, March 8, 2005, available from
  http//space.about.com/b/a/2005_03_08.htm,
  accessed November 15, 2005.
•  
• Letter to America by Challenger families, January
  28, 1987, from Challenger Center
  http//www.challenger.org/about/letter.cfm,
  accessed on November 20, 2005.
•  

25

• Lewis, Richard S. Challenger The Final Voyage.
  New York Columbia University Press, 1988.
•  
• McConnell, Malcolm. Challenger A Major
  Malfunction. Garden City, NY Doubleday, 1987.
•  
• Most Support Space Program, Poll Shows, USA
  Today, February 2, 2003, available from
  http//www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-02-02-shu
  ttle-poll_x.htm, accessed on November 15, 2005.
•  
• NASA, Space Shuttle Basics, February 15, 2005,
  available from http//spaceflight1.nasa.gov/shuttl
  e/reference/basics/ accessed on November 14,
  2005.
•  
• NASA Spin-offsApollo Inventions, available
  from http//space.about.com/od/toolsequipment/ss/a
  pollospinoffs.htm, accessed on November 17, 2005.
•  
• Reagan, Ronald. Address to the Nation on the
  Explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger,
  January 28, 1986, available from The American
  Presidency Project, http//www.presidency.ucsb.edu
  /ws/index.php?pid37646stChallengerst1
  accessed on November 15, 2005.
•  
• Saltzman, Jonathan. McAuliffes Mother Urges
  Exploration, Boston Globe, February 6, 2003,
  http//www.boston.com/news/packages/shuttle/globe_
  stories/McAuliffe_s_mother_urges_exploration.shtm
  l, accessed on November 17, 2005.
•  
• Sensebrenner, James. Remarks before the
  Electronics Industries Association, July 15,
  1998,  available from House of Representatives
  site http//www.house.gov/science/pressrel/105-220
  .htm, accessed on November 17, 2005.
•  
• Stafford, Ned. Lets Clean House, Omaha
  World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska), April 24, 1987,
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  17860RQT309VNamePQD
•