Corporate employment has relocated to America

1
More than Just Race

• Corporate employment has relocated to Americas
  suburban communities, over two thirds of
  employment growth in Metropolitan areas has
  occurred in suburbs, many residents inner-city
  ghettos have become physically isolated from
  places employment and socially isolated from
  informal job networks, essential for job
  placement growing suburban nation of jobs means
  labor markets today are mainly regional, and long
  commutes and automobiles are common among
  blue-collar as well as white-collar workers.
  Those who cannot afford to own, operate, and
  ensure private automobile new between inner-city
  neighborhoods and suburban job locations because
  a Herculean effort.

2
. Accessing Jobs

• For example research conducted in Chicago
  inner-city ghetto areas revealed that only 19 of
  residents have access to an automobile (26)
  public opinion polls in the United States
  routinely reflect the notion that people are poor
  and jobless because of their own shortcomings or
  inadequacies

3
Katrina Cruel Natural Experiment

• Few people would have reflected on how larger
  forces in society segregation, discrimination,
  lack of economic opportunity, then public schools
  adversely affect inner-city poor. Katrina was
  clearly natural disaster beyond control of
  inner-city poor, Americans were much more
  sympathetic. In this Katrina turned out to be
  something a bit cruel natural experiment, wherein
  better off Americans could readily see effects of
  racial isolation and chronic economic
  subordination

4
More than Just Race

• For example Boston welfare recipients found that
  only 14 of entry-level jobs in fast growth areas
  of Boston Metropolitan region could be accessed
  via public transit in less than an hour. In
  Atlanta metropolitan area, fewer than half
  entry-level jobs are located within a
  quarter-mile of the public transit system. To
  make matters worse many inner-city residents lack
  information about suburban job opportunities. In
  segregated inner-city ghettos breakdown of
  informal job information network magnifies the
  problems of job spatial mismatch notion that
  working people are located in two different
  places (10)

5
Redlining

• Not until the 1960s that the FHA discontinued
  mortgage restrictions based on racial composition
  of neighborhood. Subsequent policy decisions were
  to try blocks in these increasingly unattractive
  inner cities. Beginning in 1950s suburbanization
  of middle-class, already underway with government
  subsidized loans to veterans, was aided further
  by federal transportation and highway policies,
  which included building a freeway networks
  through hearts of many cities. Although these
  policies were seemingly nonracial, online here
  between ostensibly nonracial and explicitly
  racial is grey.

6
Govt Imposed Segregation

• For example we might ask whether such freeways
  would also be constructed through wealthier white
  neighborhoods (29) the freeways had a devastating
  impact on neighborhoods of black Americans. These
  developments not only spur relocation from cities
  to suburbs among better off residence, the
  freeways themselves creating barriers between
  sections of the cities, walling off poor and
  minority neighborhoods from central business
  districts.

7
Govt Imposed Segregation

• Government policies like mortgages for veterans
  and mortgage interest tax exemptions for
  developers enable the quick, cheap production of
  massive amounts of tract housing. Although these
  policies appear to be nonracial, they facilitated
  exodus of white working and middle-class families
  from urban neighborhoods and indirectly
  contributed to growth of segregated neighborhoods
  with high concentrations of poverty (30)

8
Mass Produced Homes

• Effect of housing market incentives is
  mass-produced suburban Levittown neighborhoods
  that were first erected in New York and later in
  Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Puerto Ricans, by
  Levitt and Sons. The homes of these neighborhoods
  were manufactured on a large scale with an
  assembly line model production and carefully
  engineered suburban neighborhoods that included
  many public amenities such as shopping centers
  and space for public schools.

9
More than Just Race William J. Wilson

• New York Citys state aid dropped from 52 of its
  budget in 1980 to 32 in 1989 resulting in a
  loss of 4 billion. Policy that is nonracial on
  the surface although it coincided with changes
  in proportion of white and nonwhite urban
  residents but nonetheless have indirectly
  contributed to crystallization of inner-city
  ghetto. Declining federal support for cities
  since 1981 coincided with increase in immigration
  people from poorer countries mainly low skilled
  workers from Mexico

10
Intergenerational Poverty

• One study found that more than 70 of black
  children were raised in poorest quarter of
  American neighborhoods will continue to live in
  poorest quarter neighborhood as adults. Also
  found that since 1970s majority of black families
  have resided in poorest quarter neighborhoods in
  consecutive generations, compared to only 7 of
  white families. Conclusions are that disadvantage
  in living in poor black neighborhoods, like
  advantages of living in an affluent, white
  neighborhoods, are in large measure
  inherited (52).
•  

11
Structural Factors

• Steady migration of whites to suburbs. With
  minorities displacing whites as a growing share
  of Central city population, implications for
  urban taxbase In 2000 median annual household
  income for Latinos is about 14,000 less than
  that of white households. (36) Financial crisis
  left cities ill equipped to handle three
  devastating health problems

12
Structural Factors

• 1) Prevalence of drug trafficking and associated
  violent crimes
• 2) AIDS epidemic and its escalating public health
  costs
• 3) rise in homeless population not only of
  individuals, but of whole families.
• 4) Declining Real Wages- after adjusting for
  inflation current federal minimum wage of 6.55
  is 24 lower than average level of minimum wage
  in the 1960s, 23 lower than the 1970s, 6 lower
  than 1980s, and only 1 higher than in 1990s(38).
  

13
Concentrated Poverty

• Research suggests that concentrated poverty
  increases likelihood of social isolation (for
  mainstream institutions), joblessness, dropping
  out of school, lower educational achievement,
  involvement in crime, unsuccessful behavioral
  development and delinquency among adolescents,
  non-marital childbirth, and unsuccessful family
  management. In general research reveals that
  concentrated poverty adversely affects ones
  chances in life, beginning in early childhood and
  adolescence.

14
African-Americans Lose Ground

• From a 1970s through early 1990s,
  African-Americans were just as likely as workers
  from other racial and ethnic groups to have
  manufacturing jobs. Since early 1990s, black
  workers have lost considerable ground in
  manufacturing. By 2007, blacks are about 15 less
  likely than other workers to have a job in
  manufacturing (70). From 1983 to 2007 proportion
  of all African-American workers either in unions
  or represented by union at employment site
  dropped considerably, from 31.7 to 15.7.

15
The Viscious Cycle

• Among black male high school dropouts risk of
  imprisonment has increased to 60, establishing
  incarceration as a normal stopping point on route
  to midlife. Research shows that as many as 30 of
  all civilian young adult black males ages 16 to
  34 are ex-offenders
• Joblessness can encourage illegal moneymaking
  activities in order to make ends meet, increases
  risks of incarceration. Upon release from
  incarceration, a prison record carries a stigma
  and eyes of employers and decreases probability
  that ex- offender will be hired, resulting in a
  greater likelihood of even more intractable
  joblessness (72).

16
Role of Cultural Factors

• Instead of looking at attitudes, norms, values,
  habits, and worldviews, all indications of
  cultural orientations, we focus on joblessness,
  low socioeconomic status, and underperforming
  public schools in short, structural factors
• Orland Pattersons students visited the former
  high school to discover why all black girls
  graduated college where is nearly all black boys
  either failed to graduate did not go on to
  college. The distressing findings that all black
  boys were fully aware of consequences of failing
  to graduate from high school and college. (Theyd
  indignantly exclaimed, were not stupid!

17
Cool Pose Culture

• Hanging out on street after school, sexual
  conquests, party drugs, hip-hop music and
  culture. Promote models of behavior in lower
  class neighborhoods, featuring gangster rap,
  predatory sexuality, and irresponsible fathering.
• Attitudes and behaviors valorizing kind of
  footloose fatherhood passed down to younger
  generations.

18
Culture of Defeatism

• Lawrence Mead asserts that difficulties lacks
  experience in labor markets are due in large
  measure of cultures of defeatism and resistance
  whenever blacks confront difficulties in finding
  jobs for example, obtaining reliable
  transportation to and from work. He contends that
  blacks give up in face of such difficulties and
  tend to place blame on the unique circumstances
  or actions of others in larger society for their
  employment woes, including discrimination by
  employers, wait for others to initiate action
  that would improve their situation.

19
Culture of Defeatism

• He contends is his failure to assume personal
  responsibility stems from deeply internalized
  feelings of helplessness rooted in slavery, as a
  result of a paradoxical reliance on oppressor to
  undo oppression, and passed on from generation
  to generation

20
Wilsons Research

• Katherine Newman reveals that young, low-wage
  workers in New York Citys Harlem neighborhood
  not only adhere to mainstream values regarding
  work, and also tend to have low skilled,
  low-wage, dead-end jobs.
• Wilsons research revealed many young black males
  that are his repeated failures in a job search,
  had given up hope, and therefore no longer bother
  to look for work. This discouragement has some
  parallels with Mead, but research pointed to
  negative employer attitudes and actions toward
  low skilled black males. Repeated failure results
  in resignation and development of cultural
  attitudes that discourage pursuit of steady
  employment in formal labor market.

21
Wilsons Research

• Wilsons large random survey black residents in
  inner-city revealed that despite overwhelming
  joblessness and poverty around them, black
  residents spoke in support of basic American
  values concerning individual initiative. Nearly
  all black people questioned felt plain hard work
  is either very important or somewhat important
  for getting ahead. A substantial majority agree
  that America is a land of opportunity where
  anybody can get ahead, and individuals pretty
  much get what they deserve (84)

22
Isolation and structural unemployment

• Mismatch theory increasing distance between
  jobs located on Metropolitan periphery and
  minorities located at economically decaying
  center produce structural unemployment and higher
  levels of poverty Galster (1997) decline in
  high wage low skilled manufacturing jobs and a
  growth in both low and highway service sector
  jobs.
• Stoll and Raphael( 2000) job searches anchored by
  residential location whites lived in closer
  proximity to growing suburbs that were generating
  job rich environment

23
Isolation and structural unemployment

• Spatial search barriers important source of
  observed racial differences in employment
  outcomes minorities disadvantaged by mismatch of
  residential concentration and job location
  poverty level 10 associated with departure of
  retailers and service trades, furniture,
  realtors, medical offices(299)

24
Urban households and Women

• White women headed a larger absolute number of
  single families, Black and Latina women
  proportionally were more likely to head
  single-parent families, which are also more
  likely to be in poverty women are burdened by
  cultural and legal conventions forcing them to
  ashim him him himsume primary responsibility for
  raising children. Only 5 of never married
  mothers receive any form of financial support
  from fathers of their children

25
Births to unmarried women

• In 2007 40 of all births were to unmarried women
  and teens. 28 of white births were to unmarried
  mothers, as were 51 of Hispanic and 72 of black
  births Edin and Kefala (2005) studies
  Philadelphia/New Jersey area children of
  unmarried mothers do more poorly in school and
  out lowers high school completion rates, are more
  likely to become teenage parents, and have lower
  earnings as adults, but the poor still valued
  institution of marriage

26
Edin and Kefala (2005)

• To most middle-class observers A poor woman with
  child but no husband, diploma, or job is victim
  of her own circumstances/undeniable proof that
  American society is coming apart at the seams
  (307). Wilhelm (1986) summed up thinking about
  race racial factors no longer matters since its
  specific quality-of-life among blacks, family
  disintegration, that they themselves bring about
  that explains economic deterioration

27
Urban poverty Powerlessness, Crime, Victimization

• Powerlessness. as minorities gain control local
  government, areas governed no longer constrained
  resources that allow them to be maintained and
  operated units. Cities of high-profile minority
  representation and minority mayors, have a harder
  time to delivering do to it is been called
  hollow prize problem- minority mayors assume
  power in cities emptied of affluent populations,
  businesses, and tax bases provide means for
  paying for services

28
Crime and Victimization

• As city size increases, crime increases. Urban
  crime concentrated in small number of areas
  within city, characterized by high levels of
  poverty, unemployment, substandard housing,
  teenage pregnancy, drug use (316).
• Broken windows theory toleration of minor
  offenses such as loitering, graffiti, or other
  destructive acts invites more serious breaches of
  norms of public order.

29
Broken windows

• Broken windows that go unprepared send message to
  would-be perpetrators of more serious deviants
  the local area is tolerant of misbehavior.
  Philosophy fostered policy of zero tolerance,
  employed in New York City under Mayor Rudy
  Giuliani precincts have made a higher number of
  misdemeanor arrests experienced greatest
  reduction in rates of violent crime. Aggressive
  misdemeanor arrests followed by decrease in rate
  of more serious crimes of motor vehicle theft and
  robbery