Exercise Psychology

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Exercise Psychology

• Day 26

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Mental Health Aspects of Exercise
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Stress Reduction Effects of Exercise
Evidence and Mechanisms

• Reduced state and trait anxiety due to the
  rhythmic-nature of exercise that stimulates an
  inhibitory or relaxation site in the brain stem
  of the CNS quieting cognitive activity associated
  with anxiety
• Reduced depression due to the release of biogenic
  amines (e.g., serotonin and norephinephrine) in
  the brain and/or the social interaction and
  increased self-efficacy from exercise

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Cognitive Benefits
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Cognitive Benefits
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Cognitive Benefits

• Vascular Changes - increased cerebral blood flow
• Neurotrophic factors - increased neurotransmitter
  levels (e.g., dopamine) in the brain
• Neural efficiency improved in the brain
• Fluid intelligence (reasoning or problem solving)
  improved more than crystallized intelligence
  (accumulated knowledge, word recognition, and
  recall facts)
• Genetic basis for loss of cognitive functioning
  in the elderly suggests physical inactivity may
  be more detrimental to some than others

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Goal Setting
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Goal Setting

• Progressive standards of success (short-term
  goals) are set to increasingly approximate a
  desired standard of achievement (long-term goal)
• Goal setting is not a one-size-fits-all endeavor
• Identify the clients or athletes true wants
  and needs

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Setting Goals for Feedback and Reinforcement

• Long-term (L-T) goal provides a meaningful
  pursuit for client/athlete
• Short-term (S-T) goals provide a strategy to
  achieve the long-term goal via attainable steps
• Feedback is inherent in the completion of or
  progress toward the S-T goal and leads to the
  cognitive evaluation of success or failure
• An effective yet challenging goal is one that
  has about a 50 chance of success
• Successful achievement of S-T goals leads to
  behavioral reinforcement and the development
  of self-esteem and self-efficacy

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Types of Goals

• L-T and S-T goals vary for each client/athlete
  higher or greater the L-T goal, more S-T
  incremental goals are needed to reach L-T goal
• Types of Goals Based on Personal Control
• Process goals - client/athlete has a high
  degree of control over
• Outcome goals - client/athlete has little
  control over
• Performance goals - fall in between in
  relation to control

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Process Goals

• Effort given during a workout
• Exercise form and technique
• Positive attitude during workout
• Important for maintenance of exercise behavior as
  success or goal accomplishment becomes
  increasingly difficult

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Outcome Goals

• Progress or accomplishments gauged by social
  comparison (winning or beating an opponent)
• Can be highly arousing and induce great intensity
  for competitive individuals
• Probability of success is less for outcome goals
  compared to process goals as outcome of success
  is dependent on the performance of others and
  hence success can not be guaranteed

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Performance Goals

• More difficult to achieve than process goals
• Typically stated in terms of a self-referenced
  performance standard for the client/athlete
• Examples
• Increasing strength or cardiorespiratory
  fitness level
• Reducing percent body fat

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Example of Setting a Performance Goal

• Average 3 to 5 recent 1-RM efforts in the bench
  press
• Calculate the difference between the average 1-RM
  and best 1-RM
• Add the difference to the best 1-RM to determine
  performance goal
• Recent 1-RM efforts in bench press were 140 lb,
  145 lb, 150 lb
• Average 145 lb, best 150 lb, difference 5
  lb, and new performance goal is 155 lb

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Diversified Goal Setting

• Successful goal-setting program should include a
  diverse combination of short-term and long-term
  goals as well as process, outcome, and/or
  performance goals depending on the client/athlete
• During the consultation and assessment session
  with a new client/athlete, the trainer should
  maintain focus on the clients or athletes
  desired goals and expected outcomes, and should
  develop a sound plan of action

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Goal Orientations

• Clients or athletes who gauge their performance
  or fitness improvement on the basis of previous
  ability or fitness level are said to be tasked
  involved and process and performance goals would
  probably be best
• Clients or athletes who gauge their performance
  or fitness improvement on comparison to the
  performance of one or more others are said to be
  ego-involved or other-referenced and process and
  outcome goals would probably be best

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Tips for Effective Goal Setting

• Identify the clients or athletes needs and
  desires and plan long-term goals
• Identify steps and short-terms goals that will
  lead to long-term achievement
• Initial goals may best be process goals
• Develop knowledge-based goals to compliment the
  performance and/or fitness goals
• Gradually add in more aggressive and measurable
  outcome and performance goals
• Sent a time frame for the attainment of
  measurable outcome and performance goals

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Tips for Effective Goal Setting

• Agree on a way to determine if the program is
  working toward the goals
• After setting goals, make sure client believes
  that the goals are obtainable
• Examine the goals to make sure the goals are
  compatible with one another
• Goals should be prioritized
• Attach a time frame to each goal and note if a
  goal is not achieved by the assigned date
• Goals can and should be evaluated and adjusted at
  regular intervals

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Motivation
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Motivation

• Internal drive or neural process that arouses and
  directs behavior
• Two dimensions of motivation
• Direction aspect that affects choices about
  time and commitment to exercise
• and other program goals
• Intensity with which choices are pursued

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Reinforcement

• Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a
  target or operant behavior will be repeated
• Positive reinforcement gives something to a
  client/athlete in response to a behavior (e.g.,
  social approval or congratulations on a good
  workout)
• Negative reinforcement takes something away from
  a client/athlete in response to a behavior
• (something aversive is removed or taken away to
  reward behavior such as not requiring clients or
  athletes to rack their plates after a good
  workout is completed)

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Punishment

• Punishment decreases the likelihood that a target
  or operant behavior will be repeated
• Positive punishment involves presentation of
  something aversive such as criticism of a client
  for poor exercise techniques
• Negative punishment involves removal of something
  in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior
  such as removal of a privilege because of poor
  exercise techniques or failure to reach a goal

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Self Determination or Internalization

• Intrinsic motivation - engaging in a behavior for
  the sense of enjoyment derived for it true love
  for the experience of exercise a sense of fun
  during its performance
• Extrinsic motivation - engaged in a behavior to
  achieve another goal or outcome desire to be
  engaged in a behavior to get an external reward
• Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation lies on a
  continuum
• Intrinsic motivation typically results in greater
  exercise adherence
• Important to know where a client or athlete falls
  on the continuum of motivation

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Major Points on the Continuum from External to
Internal Motivation of a Client/Athlete

• Amotivation - total lack of motivation
• External regulation - engagement in a behavior to
  avoid punishment
• Introjected regulation - engagement in exercise
  as a means to a valued end
• Identified regulation - follows trainers
  leadership because it is perceived as beneficial
  instead of personally initiating exercise
  behavior
• Integrated regulation - personally values
  exercise behavior, internalizes it, and freely
  engages in it client/athlete and trainer agree
  on the goals of the client

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Effect of Rewards

• External rewards can play a role in increasing
  intrinsic motivation and exercise adherence
• Rewards can also reduce intrinsic motivation if
  they are controlling
• Rewards can be viewed as controlling if the
  recipient perceives a contingency or connection
  between the behavior and the reward removal of
  the reward may decrease the likelihood of the
  intended behavior occurring

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When to Intervene with Motivational Efforts

• The transtheoretical model helps identify the
  stage of readiness for exercise participation
• By identifying a clients or athletes stage of
  readiness, the trainer can apply the appropriate
  processes for change or interventions in order to
  move the client or athlete to the next level with
  the ultimate goals of action and maintenance

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Stage of Readiness of a Client or Athlete

• Precontemplation - no thought or intention of
  becoming physically active
• Contemplation - thinks about and intends to
  become physically active not physically active
  yet
• Preparation - accumulates 30 minutes of
  moderate-intensity physical activity one day per
  week
• Action - accumulates 30 minutes of
  moderate-intensity physical activity five or more
  days per week, but has done so for less than six
  months
• Maintenance - accumulates 30 minutes of
  moderate-intensity physical activity five or more
  days per week for more than six months

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Self-Efficacy Building Confidence

• Performance accomplishments or successful
  performance of a behavior
• Modeling effects or observing others perform a
  target behavior enhances imitative behavior
• Verbal persuasion from a respected source
• Before or during exercise physiological
  arousal/self-belief can increase self-efficacy
  whereas anxiety/disbelief can decrease
  self-efficacy
• Achieving success has more impact than anything
  else on raising self-efficacy

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Methods to Motivate a Client
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Minimizing Procrastination

• Almost everyone believes health and fitness are
  desirable attributes, but only a small percentage
  of the population commits to and maintains a
  healthy, exercise lifestyle
• Procrastination may occur if a client/athlete
  believes that there are too many options in
  diets, exercises, devices, training methods, etc
• Trainers need to provide a decisive leadership
  role through the many options so that a
  client/athlete is not left in a frozen or
  indecisive state trying to decide in the
  perceived pain outweighs the potential benefits

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Identifying False Beliefs

• Because of the many quick fixes positioned as
  solutions, clients/athletes may have allowed
  false beliefs and information into their belief
  system
• False beliefs and information need to be
  eliminated before a trainer can install new
  empowering beliefs and information
• An effective line of communication between the
  trainer and client/athlete must be established
  through which education and reasoning can be
  effectively communicated and instilled

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Identifying and Modifying Self TalkHis or Her
Internal Voice

• Positive self talk can be very motivating
• Negative self talk makes it almost impossible for
  a client/athlete to accept even the most
  positively directed affirmations
• Positive affirmations will be more effective if
  the client/athlete changes the negative
• self-talk first

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Modifying Self Talk

• Ask client/athlete to notice and think about the
  types of his/her self-talk self talk during the
  day
• Ask the client/athlete to identify his/her self
  talk before and during training sessions
• Have client/athlete write down negative self talk
  on the left side of a piece of paper and on the
  right side how the self talk could be changed to
  be supportive or motivating instead
• Have client recite and rehearse the new, positive
  affirmations
• External encouragement will be more effective if
  the client/athlete changes his/her self-talk
  first

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Motivational Strategies

• Define your goals
• Set realistic goals
• Exercise with a group
• Exercise with a buddy
• Recruit the support of significant others
• Associate with other exercisers
• Schedule a definite time and place for exercise
• Build on successful experiences
• Exercise to music
• Participate in a variety of activities
• Keep a progress chart or daily log

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Other Psychological Tools for Performance
Enhancement
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Mental Imagery

• A cognitive psychological skill in which the
  client/athlete uses all of the senses to create a
  mental experience of the performance
• The client/athlete stimulates reality by mentally
  rehearsing a movement and/or imagining visual,
  auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and even
  exertional cues

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Hypnosis

• An induced state of hyper-suggestibility
• Positive suggestions relating to a clients or
  athletes performance potential are planted in
  the subconscious mind

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Systematic Desensitization

• A technique that helps a client/athlete initially
  confront or reduce fears, which may have arisen
  from an association of previously neutral stimuli
  with a stressful event(s)
• Involves counter-conditioning in which an athlete
  replaces a fear response to various cues with a
  relaxation response

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Physical Relaxation Techniques

• Diaphragmatic breathing - involves belly
  breathing which focuses on breath (a controllable
  aspect of physiology) to clear the mind and
  therefore increase attentional capacity

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Physical Relaxation Techniques

• Progressive muscular relaxation - a somatopsychic
  technique by which psychological and physical
  arousal are
• self-regulated through the control of muscular
  tension involves performance of a series of
  alternate muscular tensing and relaxing phases in
  which the individual becomes aware of somatic
  tension and learns to control it

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Physical Relaxation Techniques

• Autogenic training - an attentional state that
  focuses on the sense of warmth and heaviness of a
  particular limb or muscle group shifting
  autonomic neural processes from sympathetic
  dominance to parasympathetic dominance

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References

• Earle and Baechle - Chapter 8
• Course Reader - Section 32

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QUESTIONS?COMMENTS?

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Identifying and Modifying Self Talk