Literary Theory

1
Literary Theory

• Literary Theory. Gender, Culture and Adaptation
  Studies

2
The literary work examined

• in relation to
• the world
• the audience
• the author
• or examined in itself

3
M. H. Abrams, The Mirror and the Lamp Romantic
Theory and the Critical Tradition
(1953) Introduction Orientation of Critical
Theories
4
The literary work in relation to

• UNIVERSE
• WORK OF ART
• AUTHOR AUDIENCE

5
The literary work in relation to

• Work of art universe
• How art reflects / mirrors / represents the
  world
• e.g., realism (or the effect of the real)
• Work of art artist
• How the artist creates, what it is the artist
  expresses

6
The literary work in relation to

• Work of art audience
• What effect the work of art has / should have
• Work of art in itself
• What it is like (formal, structural analyses)

7
Mimetic theories

• Mimesis and imitation
• rather representation
• Aristotles Poetics dramatic plot as imitation
  of an action
• Coleridge imitation of nature in being an
  organic unity
• Realistic imitation recognizable
• (it is like what the reader knows)
• Aristotle imitation an internal relation of
  form to content, vs an external relation
  of copy and original
• You are aware of the resemblance of tragic action
  to human behaviour and you are aware of the
  conventions of tragic drama as different from
  other forms

8
Pragmatic theories

• 1970s reader-response criticism, Literary
• Pragmatics readers contribution to text
• reading actualizes potential meaning
• 18th century art has to be useful
• "The end of writing is to instruct the end of
• poetry is to instruct by pleasing,
• (Samuel Johnson's Preface to Shakespeare)
• Follows classical theory of rhetoric ( art of
  persuasion) 5 part process
• invention, arrangement, style, memory, delivery

9
Expressive theories

• Art as an expression of feelings
• For all good poetry is the spontaneous overflow
  of powerful feelings William Wordsworth in
  Preface to Lyrical Ballads (1800)
• Art as an expression of the personal subconscious
• Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams
  (1900) ? psychoanalytical criticism
• Art as an expression of the collective
  unconscious C.G. Jung, archetypes, archetypal
  images

10
Objective theories

• The work of art studied in itself, as a closed
  system internal structure, form, internal
  consistency -  its "intrinsic" rather than
  "extrinsic" qualities.
• art for arts sake (lart pour lart)
• No one theory can explain all works
• (The essay is an introduction to his book on the
  Romantics The Mirror and the Lamp, 1953

11
M.H. Abrams, Orientation of critical theories

• mimetic theories
• objective theories
• expressive theories pragmatic theories

12
textual criticism

• The editorial art - establishing the text
• The aim of a critical edition should be to
  present the text, so far as the available
  evidence permits, in the form in which we may
  suppose that it would have stood in a fair copy,
  made by the author himself, of the work as he
  finally intended it.
• W. W. Greg, The Editorial Problem in Shakespeare
• (rev. edn. Oxford 1954)

13
authorial intention

• A design or plan in the author's mind
• We argued that the design or intention of the
  author is neither available nor desirable as a
  standard for judging the success of a work of
  literary art, and it seems to us that this is a
  principle which goes deep into some differences
  in the history of critical attitude.
• The Intentional Fallacy by W.K. Wimsatt and
  Monroe C. Beardsley (1946) In The Verbal Icon
  studies in the meaning of poetry
• (also In Lodge's 2Oth c. Literary Criticism)

14
impressionistic criticism

• Recreate the poem while writing about the poem.
• The Affective Fallacy is a confusion between
  the poem and its results (what it is and what it
  does) ... It begins by trying to derive the
  standard of criticism from the psychological
  effects of the poem an ends in impressionism and
  relativism. ... Plato's feeding and watering of
  the passions was an early example of affective
  theory, and Aristotle's countertheory of
  catharsis was another
• The Affective Fallacy by W.K. Wimsatt and
  Monroe C. Beardsley (1949) In The Verbal Icon
  studies in the meaning of poetry (also In
  Lodge's 20th c. Literary Criticism)

15
value judgements

• Literary criticism has in the present day
  become a profession, - but it has ceased to be an
  art. Its object is no longer that of proving that
  certain literary work is good and other literary
  work is bad, in accordance with rules which the
  critic is able to define. English criticism at
  present rarely even pretends to go so far as
  this. It attempts, in the first place, to tell
  the public whether a book be or be not be worth
  public attention and, in the second place, so to
  describe the purport of the work as to enable
  those who have not time or inclination for
  reading to feel that by a short cut they have
  become acquainted with its contents. Both these
  pojects, if fairly well carried out, are
  salutary.
• Anthony Trollope, Autobiography (1883), ch. xiv

16
interpretation

• Interpretation is the revenge of the intellect
  upon art... The temptation to interpret Marienbad
  should be resisted. What matters in Marienbad in
  the pure, untranslateable, sensuous immediacy of
  some of its images, and its vigorous if narrow
  solution to certain problems of cinematic form...
  In place of a hermeneutics we need an erotics of
  art. Susan Sontag, Against Interpretation (1967)

17
deconstructing interpretations

• We need to interpret interpretations more than to
  interpret things.
• (Montaigne)
• Quoted in Jacques Derrida, Structure, Sign, and
  Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences
• 1967, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass
  (London Routledge Classics, 2001) page
  351-370351.

18
An example gender studies

• Mimetic approach the way the work represents
  gender issues in society
• Pragmatic approach the way the work can help
  raising awareness and show alternative models of
  relating to gender issues
• Expressive approach the way the author expresses
  the experience of being a woman, a man, a human
  being of a specific gender
• Objective approach e.g.,écriture féminine

19
(an aside about basic terms)

• female ? feminine ? feminist
• biological vs socio-cultural vs political
• context and terminology
• feminism ? gender studies
• - political vs academic context and terminology,
• - focus on women vs focus on gendered experience
• 
  of being human
• feminist literary criticism
• gender studies in literature

20
Gender as performance
Judith Butler
Gender Trouble, 1990
Bodies That Matter On the Discursive Limits of
Sex, 1993
21
Another example adaptation theory

• My method has been to identify a text-based
  issue that extends across a variety of media,
  find ways to study it comparatively, and then
  tease out the theoretical implications from
  multiple textual examples. At various times,
  therefore, I take on the roles of formalist
  semiotician, poststructuralist deconstructor, or
  feminist and postcolonial demythifier

22
Linda Hutcheon

• but at no time do I (at least consciously)
  try to impose any of these theories on my
  examination of the texts or the general issues
  surrounding adaptation. All these perspectives
  and others, however, do inevitably inform my
  theoretical frame of reference
• Hutcheon, Linda (2009-04-04). Preface to A
  Theory of Adaptation . T F Books US. Kindle
  Edition.

23
Linda Hutcheon

• It is the very act of adaptation itself that
  interests me, not necessarily in any specific
  media or even genre.
• My working assumption is that common
  denominators across media and genres can be as
  revealing as significant differences.

24
Linda Hutcheon

• .A Theory of Adaptation begins its study of
  adaptations as adaptations that is, not only as
  autonomous works. Instead, they are examined as
  deliberate, announced, and extended revisitations
  of prior works. Because we use the word
  adaptation to refer to both a product and a
  process of creation and reception, this suggests
  to me the need for a theoretical perspective that
  is at once formal and "experiential."

25
Linda Hutcheon

• This book is not, however, a history of
  adaptation, though it is written with an
  awareness of the fact that adaptations can and do
  have different functions in different cultures at
  different times. A Theory of Adaptation is quite
  simply what its title says it is one single
  attempt to think through some of the theoretical
  issues surrounding the ubiquitous phenomenon of
  adaptation as adaptation.

26
Linda Hutcheon A Theory of Adaptation Routledge,
2006
27
The language of literary criticism

• A statement may be used for the sake of the
  reference, true or false, which it causes. This
  is the scientific use of language. But it may
  also be used for the sake of the effects in
  emotion and attitude produced by the reference it
  occasions. This is the emotive use of language.
  I.A. Richards, The two uses of language (ch. 34
  from The Principles of Literary Criticism (1924)
  also in Lodge's 20th Century Literary Criticism

28

• BBI-FLI-101E INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE IN
  ENGLISH
•  
• Please read the tasks carefully.
•  
• I Please provide a brief definition (1-2 lines)
  for the following terms
• (10 x 1 point)

29

• II Please explain in a paragraph what you know
  about the following terms
• (2 x 3 points)

30

• III Technical Analysis. Please read the poem
  below carefully.

31

• a) Technical Focus. Please list 3 possible ways
  you could write a meaningful analysis of the
  following text. Mention the technical focus for
  each of your possible analyses and write a title
  for each. Make sure you choose appropriate
  approaches that would help toward an
  interpretation, since the next task will be to
  actually write one of the 3 analyses you suggest
  here. (3 x 2 point)
•  

32

• B) Analyse text in detail concentrating on one of
  the features you listed above. (Please use
  separate sheet.) (10 points, see table below)

33

• Argumentation (make points, prove them with
  quotes from text) 2 points
• Use of critical terminology (apply terms learnt
  for the exam) 3 points
• Use of course material (apply concepts discussed
  in lectures) 3 points
• Essay format (one page, paragraphs, beginning,
  middle, ending) 2 points

34
EXTRA MATERIAL

• What follows has not been discussed in the
  lecture but may provide useful - feel free to
  continue.

35
Literary criticism as a systematic study

• It is clear that criticism cannot be a
  systematic study unless there is a quality in
  literature which enables it to be so. We have to
  adopt the hypothesis, then, that just as there is
  an order of nature behind the natural sciences,
  so literature is not a piled aggregate of 'works'
  but an order of 'words'.
• Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism (1957)

36
Vassilis Lambropoulos, David Neal Miller ,
eds. Twentieth-Century Literary TheoryAn
Introductory Anthology
David Lodge, 20th century literary criticism  a
reader (1972)
http//www.sunypress.edu/p-861-twentieth-century-l
iterary-theo.aspx http//books.google.com/books/ab
out/20th_century_literary_criticism.html?idWSMaAQ
AAIAAJ
37
Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory An Introduction
(1983)
Raman Selden, Peter Widdowson, Peter Brooker, A
reader's guide to contemporary literary
theory (1985 5th edition 2005)
http//books.google.com/books?idQNmFm4M_RXkCprin
tsecfrontcoversourcegbs _ge_summary_rcad0vo
nepageqffalse, http//books.google.com/books?id
6TZ2iVrS6MgCprintsecfrontcovervonepageqffa
lse
38
From theories to Theory

• English Literature as a discipline
• designed and consolidated 2nd half of 19th c
  (a consequence of the coming of the national
  dimension into prominence)
• Canon construction, canon as a national narrative
• Historical, biographical, moral and rhetorical
  considerations were blended
• As an academic discipline it started to develop
  in a way to meet scientific criteria

39
From theories to Theory New Criticism

• New Criticism was a movement in literary theory
  that
• dominated American and had an impact on English
• literary criticism in the middle decades of the
  20th
• century.
• Its chief critical strategy was close reading,
  particularly
• when discussing poetry, emphasizing that a work
  of
• literature functions as a self-contained, self
  referential
• aesthetic object.

40
From theories to Theory New Criticism

• New Criticism developed in the 1920s-30s and
  peaked
• in the 1940s-50s. The movement is named after
  John
• Crowe Ransom's 1941 book The New Criticism.
• New Critics focused on the text of a work of
  literature
• and tried to exclude the author's biography and
• intention, historical and cultural contexts, and
• moralistic bias from their analysis.
• Reader's response was not taken into account
  either.

41
From theories to Theory New Criticism

• New Critics often performed a "close reading" of
  the
• text and believed the structure and meaning of
  the text
• were intimately connected and should not be
  analyzed
• separately.
• The main aim of New Criticism was to make
  literary
• criticism scientific.

42
From theories to Theory New Criticism

• One of the most common grievances against the New
• Criticism, is an objection to the idea of the
  text as
• autonomous detractors react against a perceived
  anti
• historicism, accusing the New Critics of
  divorcing
• literature from its place in history.

43
From theories to Theory New Criticism

• Another objection comes from the reader-response
• school of theory, rightly claiming that the
  fundamental
• close reading technique is based on the
  assumption
• that the subject and the object of study - the
  reader
• and the text - are stable and independent forms,
  rather
• than products of the unconscious process of
• signification.

44
From theories to TheoryI. A. Richards

• I. A. Richards (18931979) , English literary
  critic.
• His books, especially Principles of Literary
  Criticism
• (1924) and Practical Criticism (1929), proved to
  be
• founding influences for the New Criticism.
• The concept of 'practical criticism' led in time
  to the
• practices of close reading, what is often thought
  of as
• the beginning of modern literary criticism.
  Richards is
• regularly considered one of the founders of the
• contemporary study of literature in English.

45
From theories to TheoryI. A. Richards

• In Practical Criticism he advocated an empirical
  study
• of literary response. He removed authorial and
• contextual information from thirteen poems,
  including
• one by Longfellow and four by decidedly marginal
• poets. Then he assigned their interpretation to
• undergraduates at Cambridge University in order
  to
• ascertain the most likely impediments to an
  adequate
• response. This approach had a startling impact at
  the
• time in demonstrating the depth and variety of
• misreadings to be expected of otherwise
  intelligent
• college students as well as the population at
  large.

46
From theories to TheoryI. A. Richards

• The question arises, however, whether such
• interpretations are misreadings or relevant
  varieties of
• reading.

47
From theories to Theory

• René Wellek and Austin Warrens Theory of
  Literature
• was much ahead of its time when it first
  published in
• 1949.
• By the 1970s and 80s the term study of
  literature was
• getting to be substituted by the term theory
  and soon
• taken over by Theory with capital T.

48
From theories to Theory

• Theory has a history and is categorized into
  schools,
• such as roughly in the order of their
  appearance
• Liberal Humanism, New Criticism, Formalism,
• Structuralism, Marxist, Psychological Approach,
• Archetypal Approach, Myth Criticism, Cultural
• Criticism, Post-structuralism, Deconstruction,
  New
• Historicism, Readers Response Criticism,
• Hermeneutic Approach, Phenomenological Criticism,
• Postmodernism, Postcolonialism, Feminism, Gender
• Studies, Queer Theory, Ecocriticism, etc.

49
Structuralism

• Structuralism originated in the structural
  linguistics of
• Ferdinand de Saussure and the subsequent Prague
• and Moscow schools of linguistics. Just as
  structural
• linguistics was facing serious challenges from
  the likes
• of Noam Chomsky and thus fading in importance in
• linguistics, structuralism appeared in academia
  in the
• second half of the 20th century and grew to
  become
• one of the most popular approaches in academic
  fields
• concerned with the analysis of language, culture,
  and
• society.

50
Marxist literary criticism

• Marxist literary criticism is a loose term
  describing
• literary criticism based on socialist and
  dialectic
• theories. Marxist criticism views literary works
  as
• reflections of the social institutions from which
  they
• originate. According to Marxists, even literature
  itself is
• a social institution and has a specific
  ideological
• function, based on the background and ideology of
  the
• author.

51
Marxist literary criticism

• The simplest goals of Marxist literary criticism
  can
• include an assessment of the political 'tendency'
  of a
• literary work, determining whether its social
  content or
• its literary form are 'progressive'. It also
  includes
• analyzing the class constructs demonstrated in
  the
• literature.

52
Structuralism

• The structuralist mode of reasoning has been
  applied
• in a diverse range of fields, including
  anthropology,
• sociology, psychology, literary criticism, and
• architecture.
• The most prominent thinkers associated with
• structuralism include the linguist Roman
  Jakobson, the
• anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, the
  psychoanalyst
• Jacques Lacan, the philosopher and historian
  Michel
• Foucault, the philosopher and social commentator
• Jacques Derrida, and the literary critic Roland
  Barthes.

53
Structuralism

• Proponents of structuralism would argue that a
• specific domain of culture may be understood by
• means of a structure - modelled on language -
  that is
• distinct both from the organizations of reality
  and
• those of ideas or the imagination. In the 1970s,
• structuralism was criticized for its rigidity and
• ahistoricism.

54
New Historicism

• New Historicism is a school of literary theory,
• grounded in critical theory, that developed in
  the
• 1980s, primarily through the work of the critic
  Stephen
• Greenblatt.
• New Historicists aim simultaneously to understand
  the
• work through its historical context and to
  understand
• cultural and intellectual history through
  literature,
• which documents the new discipline of the history
  of
• ideas.

55
Deconstruction

• Deconstruction is a term introduced by French
• philosopher Jacques Derrida in his 1967 book
• Of Grammatology.
• Deconstruction refers to a process of exploring
  the
• categories and concepts that history and
  tradition has
• imposed on a word or a work. Deconstruction
  suggests
• analysis with high precision.

56
Deconstruction

• In describing deconstruction, Derrida famously
• observed that "there is nothing outside the
  text." That
• is to say, all of the references used to
  interpret a text
• are themselves texts, even the "text" of reality
  as a
• reader knows it. There is no truly objective,
  non-textual
• reference from which interpretation can begin.
• Deconstruction, then, can be described as an
  effort to
• understand a text through its relationships to
  various
• contexts.

57
Post-structuralism

• The post-structuralist movement may be broadly
• understood as a body of distinct responses to
• Structuralism. Structuralism argued that human
  culture
• may be understood by means of a structure -
  modeled
• after structural linguistics - that is distinct
  both from
• the organizations of reality and the organization
  of
• ideas and imagination.

58
Post-structuralism

• The post-structuralist approach includes the
  rejection
• of the self-sufficiency of the structures that
• structuralism posits and an interrogation of the
  binary
• oppositions that constitute those structures.

59
Reader-response criticism

• Reader-response criticism is a school of literary
  theory
• that focuses on the reader (or "audience") and
  his or
• her experience of a literary work, in contrast to
  other
• schools and theories that focus attention
  primarily on
• the author or the content and form of the work.
• Although literary theory has long paid some
  attention
• to the reader's role in creating the meaning and
• experience of a literary work, modern
  reader-response
• criticism began in the 1960s and '70s,
  particularly in
• America and Germany, in works by, Stanley Fish,
• Wolfgang Iser, Hans-Robert Jauss, Roland Barthes,
• and others.

60
Reader-response criticism

• An important predecessor was I. A. Richards, who
  in
• 1929 analyzed a group of Cambridge
  undergraduates
• misreadings.
• Reader-response theory recognizes the reader as
  an
• active agent who constitutes meaning to the work
• and completes its meaning through interpretation.
• Reader-response criticism argues that literature
  should
• be viewed as a performing art in which each
  reader
• creates his or her own, possibly unique,
  text-related
• performance.

61
Reader-response criticismvs. New Criticism

• It stands in total opposition to the theories of
• formalism and the New Criticism, in which the
  reader's
• role in re-creating literary works is ignored.
  New
• Criticism had emphasized that only that which is
  within
• a text is part of the meaning of a text. No
  appeal to the
• authority or intention of the author, nor to the
• psychology of the reader, was allowed in the
• discussions of orthodox New Critics.

62
Psychoanalytic criticism

• Psychoanalytic literary criticism refers to
  literary
• criticism or literary theory which, in method,
  concept,
• or form, is influenced by the tradition of
• psychoanalysis begun by Sigmund Freud.
• Psychoanalytic reading has been practiced since
  the
• early development of psychoanalysis itself, and
  has
• developed into a heterogeneous interpretive
  tradition.

63
Ecocriticism

• Ecocriticism is the study of literature and
  environment
• from an interdisciplinary point of view where all
• sciences come together to analyze the environment
• and brainstorm possible solutions for the
  correction of
• the contemporary environmental situation.
• Ecocriticism is an intentionally broad approach
  that is
• known by a number of other designations,
  including
• "green (cultural) studies", "ecopoetics", and
• "environmental literary criticism".

64
From theories to Theory

• Delia Da Sousa Correa and W. R. Owens The
• Handbook to Literary Research. 2nd ed. London
• Routledge, 2010
• Theory exerts an institutional pressure. Students
  of
• literature are supposed to understand that their
  various
• projects must demonstrate an awareness of Theory.
• Theory is a dominant academic discourse, a body
  of
• knowledge that should be acquired and applied.

65
From theories to Theory

• Theory is not a given field of knowledge with
  many
• schools which has to be sampled and picked from
• and applied, but is an institutional
  extrapolation from
• an ongoing process of debating and thinking about
• literature and criticism.

66
Theories

• If so, can any work be analyzed by any method and
• critical perspective
• ? ? ?
• Certain works are more suitable for an analysis
• according to a particular method or critical
  perspective

67
Robert Frost(1874-1963)Stopping by Woods on a
Snowy Evening

• Whose woods these are I think I know.
• His house is in the village though
• He will not see me stopping here
• To watch his woods fill up with snow.
• My little horse must think it queer
• To stop without a farmhouse near
• Between the woods and frozen lake
• The darkest evening of the year.

68
Frost cont.

• He gives his harness bells a shake
• To ask if there is some mistake.
• The only other sound's the sweep
• Of easy wind and downy flake.
• The woods are lovely, dark and deep.
• But I have promises to keep,
• And miles to go before I sleep,
• And miles to go before I sleep.

69
Approaches

• New Criticism
• Marxist
• Cultural
• Psychological
• Archetypal
• Ecocriticism

70
William Blake(1757-1827)The Chimney Sweeper

• When my mother died I was very young,
• And my father sold me while yet my tongue
• Could scarcely cry 'weep! 'weep! 'weep! 'weep!
• So your chimneys I sweep, and in soot I sleep.
• There's little Tom Dacre, who cried when his
  head,
• That curled like a lamb's back, was shaved so I
  said,
• "Hush, Tom! never mind it, for when your head's
  bare,
• You know that the soot cannot spoil your white
  hair."
• And so he was quiet and that very night,
• As Tom was a-sleeping, he had such a sight, -
• That thousands of sweepers, Dick, Joe, Ned, and
  Jack,
• Were all of them locked up in coffins of black.

71
Blake cont.

• And by came an angel who had a bright key,
• And he opened the coffins and set them all free
• Then down a green plain leaping, laughing, they
  run,
• And wash in a river, and shine in the sun.
• Then naked and white, all their bags left behind,
• They rise upon clouds and sport in the wind
• And the angel told Tom, if he'd be a good boy,
• He'd have God for his father, and never want
  joy.
• And so Tom awoke and we rose in the dark,
• And got with our bags and our brushes to work.
• Though the morning was cold, Tom was happy and
  warm
• So if all do their duty they need not fear harm.

72
Approaches

• Marxism
• Cultural
• New Historicism

73
Carol Ann Duffy(1955)Sit at Peace

• When they gave you them to shell and you sat
• on the back-doorstep, opening the small green
  envelopes
• with your thumb, minding the queues of peas, you
  were
• sitting at peace. Sit at peace, sit at peace, all
  summer.
• When Muriel Purdy, embryonic cop, thwacked the
  back
• of your knees with a bamboo-cane, mouth open,
  soundless
• in a cave of pain, you ran to your house,
• a greeting wean, to be kept in and told once
  again.
• Nip was a dog. Fluff was a cat. They sat at peace
• on a coloured-in mat, so why couldnt you?
  Sometimes
• your questions were stray snipes over no-mans
  land,
• bringing sharp hands and the order you had to
  obey. Sit

74
Duffy, cont.

• At Peace! Jigsaws you couldnt do or dull
  stamps
• didnt want to collect arrived with the frost.
• You would rather stand with your nose to the
  window, clouding
• the strange blue view with your restless breath.
• But the day you fell from the Parachute Tree,
  they came
• from nowhere running, carried you in to a quiet
  room
• you were glad of. A long silent afternoon,
  dreamlike.
• A voice saying peace, sit at peace, sit at peace.
  

75
Approaches

• Cultural
• Postmodernism
• Feminism
• Gender

76
John Donne(1572-1631) A Valediction Of Weeping

• Let me pour forth
• My tears before thy face, whilst I stay here,
• For thy face coins them, and thy stamp they bear,
• And by this mintage they are something worth.
• For thus they be
• Pregnant of thee
• Fruits of much grief they are, emblems of more
• When a tear falls, that thou fall'st which it
  bore
• So thou and I are nothing then, when on a divers
  shore. 

77
Donne, cont.

• On a round ball
• A workman, that hath copies by, can lay
• An Europe, Afric, and an Asia,
• And quickly make that, which was nothing, all.
• So doth each tear.
• Which thee doth wear,
• A globe, yea world, by that impression grow,
• Till thy tears mix'd with mine do overflow
• This world, by waters sent from thee, my heaven
  dissolvèd so.               

78
Donne, cont.

• O ! more than moon,
• Draw not up seas to drown me in thy sphere
• Weep me not dead, in thine arms, but forbear
• To teach the sea, what it may do too soon
• Let not the wind
• Example find
• To do me more harm than it purposeth
• Since thou and I sigh one another's breath,
• Whoe'er sighs most is cruellest, and hastes the
  other's death.

79
Charles Tennyson Turner(1808-1879)Lettys Globe

• When Letty had scarce pass'd her third glad
  year,    And her young artless words began to
  flow, One day we gave the child a colour'd
  sphere    Of the wide earth, that she might mark
  and know, By tint and outline, all its sea and
  land.    She patted all the world old empires
  peep'd Between her baby fingers her soft hand
     Was welcome at all frontiers. How she leap'd,
     And laugh'd and prattled in her world-wide
  bliss But when we turn'd her sweet unlearned
  eye On our own isle, she raised a joyous cry--
  'Oh! yes, I see it, Letty's home is there!'
     And while she hid all England with a kiss,
  Bright over Europe fell her golden hair.

80
Charles Tennyson Turner(1808-1879)Lettys Globe

•    When Letty had scarce pass'd her third glad
  year,    And her young artless words began to
  flow, One day we gave the child a colour'd
  sphere    Of the wide earth, that she might mark
  and know, By tint and outline, all its sea and
  land.    She patted all the world old empires
  peep'd Between her baby fingers her soft hand
     Was welcome at all frontiers. How she leap'd,
     And laugh'd and prattled in her world-wide
  bliss But when we turn'd her sweet unlearned
  eye On our own isle, she raised a joyous cry -
  'Oh! yes, I see it, Letty's home is there!'
     And while she hid all England with a kiss,
  Bright over Europe fell her golden hair.

81
Critical approaches

• Wilfred L. Guerin, Earle Labor, Lee Morgan,
  Jeanne C.
• Reesman, John R. Willingham
• A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature.
  4th
• ed.
• New York, Oxford Oxford University Oress, 1999