Harappan society and its neighbors, ca. 2000 B.C.E.

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Harappan society and its neighbors, ca. 2000
B.C.E.
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Foundations of Harappan Society

• The Indus River
• Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges
• Major society built by Dravidian peoples,
  3000-2500 BCE
• Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early
  cultivation of poultry
• Decline after 1900 BCE
• Major cities Harrapa (Punjab region and
  Mohenjo-Daro (mouth of Indus River)
• 70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)

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Mohenjo-Daro Ruins

• Population c. 40,000
• Regional center
• Layout, architecture suggests public purpose
• Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage
• Standardized weights evident throughout region
• Specialized labor
• Trade

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Harapan Society and Culture

• Evidence of social stratification
• Dwelling size, decoration
• Harappan Civilization matriarchal?
• Influence on later Indian culture
• Goddesses of fertility
• Possible east/west distinctions

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Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization

• Reasons for disappearance unclear
• Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil
• Earthquakes?
• Flooding?
• Evidence of unburied dead
• Disappearance by 1500 BCE

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The Early Aryans

• Pastoral economy sheep, goats, horses, cattle
• Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries
  later
• Religious and Literary works The Vedas
• Sanskrit sacred tongue
• Prakrit everyday language, evolved into Hindi,
  Urdu, Bengali
• Four Vedas, most important Rig Veda
• 1,028 hymms to gods

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The Vedic Age

• Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous dasas
  (enemies, subjects)
• Aryans fighting Dravidians
• Also Aryans fighting each other
• Chiefdoms Rajas
• Early concentration in Punjab, migrations further
  south
• Development of iron metallurgy
• Increasing reliance on agriculture
• Tribal connections evolve into political
  structures

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Varna The Caste System

• Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians
• Brahmin, Priest
• Kshatriya, Warrior
• Vaishya, Merchant
• Sudra, Commoner
• Harijan Untouchables Pariahs
• Jati subsystem of castes
• Related to urbanization, increasing social and
  economic complexity

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Aryan Religion

• Major deity of Rig Veda Indra, war god
• Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods
• Role of Brahmins important
• C. 800 BCE some movement away from sacrificial
  cults
• Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians

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Teachings of the Upanishads

• Texts that represent blending of Aryan and
  Dravidian traditions
• Composed 800-400 BCE, some later collections
  until 13th century CE
• Brahman the Universal Soul
• Samsara reincarnation
• Karma accounting for incarnations
• Moksha mystical ecstacy
• Relationship to system of Varna

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The Mauryan and Gupta empires321 B.C.E.-550 C.E.
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India Before the Mauryan Dynasty

• 520 BCE Persian Emperor Darius conquers
  north-west India
• Introduces Persian ruling pattern
• 327 Alexander of Macedon destroys Persian Empire
  in India
• Troops mutiny, departs after 2 years
• Political power vacuum

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Kingdom of Magadha

• Most significant remaining kingdom after
  Alexanders departure
• Central Ganges plain
• Economic strength
• Agriculture
• Trade in Ganges valley, Bay of Bengal
• Dominated surrounding regions in north-eastern
  India

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Chandragupta Maurya

• Took advantage of power vacuum left by Alexander
• Overthrew Magadha rulers
• Expanded kingdom to create 1st unified Indian
  empire
• Mauryan Dynasty

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Chandraguptas Government

• Advisor Kautalya
• Recorded in Arthashastra, manual of political
  statecraft
• Foreign policies, economics
• Domestic policies
• Network of spies
• Legend Chandragupta retires to become a monk,
  starves himself to death

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Ashoka Maurya

• Grandson of Chandragupta
• Represents high point of Mauryan Empire, r.
  268-232 BCE
• Expanded empire to include all of Indian
  subcontinent except for south
• Positive rulership integrated Indian society

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Decline of the Mauryan Empire

• Economic crisis follows death of Ashoka
• High costs of bureaucracy, military not supported
  by tax revenue
• Frequent devaluations of currency to pay salaries
• Regions begin to abandon Mauryan Empire
• Disappears by 185 BCE

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Regional Kingdom Bactria

• Northwestern India
• Ruled by Greek-speaking descendants of
  Alexanders campaigns
• Intense cultural activity accompanies active trade

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Regional Kingdom Kush

• Northern India/Central Asia
• C. 1-300 CE
• Maintained silk road network

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The Gupta Dynasty

• Based in Magadha
• Founded by Chandra Gupta (no relation to
  Chandragupta Maurya), c. 320 CE
• Slightly smaller than Mauryan Empire
• Highly decentralized leadership

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Gupta Decline

• Frequent invasions of White Huns, 5th c. CE
• Gupta Dynasty disintegrates along regional fault
  lines
• Smaller local kingdoms dominate until Mughal
  Empire founded in 16th c.

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Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin

• Seasonal sea trade expands
• Spring/winter winds blow from south-west,
  fall/winter winds blow from north-west
• Trade from Asia to Persian Gulf and Red Sea,
  Mediterranean

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Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin

• Seasonal sea trade expands
• Spring/winter winds blow from south-west,
  fall/winter winds blow from north-west
• Trade from Asia to Persian Gulf and Red Sea,
  Mediterranean

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Society Gender Relations

• Patriarchy entrenched
• Child marriage common (8 year old girls married
  to men in 20s)
• Women encouraged to remain in private sphere

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Jainism

• Vardhamana Mahavira, 540-468 BCE
• Abandoned privileged family to lead ascetic life
• Promotes 7th c. movement based on Upanishads
• Emphasis on selfless living, concern for all
  beings

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Ahimsa

• Principle of extreme non-violence
• Jainists sweep earth, strain water, use slow
  movements to avoid killing insects
• Ahimsa continues to inspire modern movements
  (Ghandi, Martin Luther King Jr.)

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Early Buddhism

• Siddhartha Gautama, c. 563-483 BCE
• Encountered age, sickness, death, then monastic
  life
• Abandoned comfortable life to become a monk

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The Buddha and his Followers

• Begins teaching new doctrine c. 528 BCE
• Followers owned only robes, food bowls
• Life of wandering, begging, meditation
• Establishment of monastic communities

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Buddhist Doctrine The Dharma

• The Four Noble Truths
• all life is suffering
• there is an end to suffering
• removing desire removes suffering
• this may be done through the eight-fold path
• (right views, intention, speech, action,
  livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration)

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Ashokas Support of Buddhism

• Personal conversion to Buddhism
• Disillusioned after violent war with Kalinga
• Banned animal sacrifices, mandated vegetarianism
  in court
• Material support for Buddhist institutions,
  missionary activities

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Changes in Buddhist thought

• 3rd c. BCE 1st c. CE
• Buddha considered divine
• Institution of Boddhisatvas (saints)
• Charitable donations to monasteries regarded as
  pious activity

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Spread of Mahayana Buddhism

• Mahayana (greater vehicle), newer development
• India, China, Japan, Korea, central Asia
• Hinayana (lesser vehicle, also Theravada),
  earlier version
• Ceylon, Burma, Thailand

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Emergence of Popular Hinduism

• Composition of epics from older oral traditions
• Mahabharata
• Ramayana
• Emphasis on god Vishnu and his incarnations