The Electoral System and Parliamentary Reform

1
The Electoral System and Parliamentary Reform
2
Outline

• Introduction
• The franchise before 1832
• Who voted and how?
• Pressure for reform
• 1832 Reform Act
• Did anything change with reform?

3
Introduction
Is Hogarths Election Entertainment a good
summary of the electorate and the way elections
were conducted in the eighteenth century?
4
The rage of party

• Some historians argue electoral participation and
  activity was high in this period
• The size of the electorate Plumb estimates
  electorate of 200,000 in Williams reign and
  about 250,000 in 1715. Holmes looks at total
  electorate rather than numbers voting giving
  figure of 340,000 voters by 1722 around 1 in 4
  adult males who could vote.
• The triennial act of 1694 there were 10 general
  elections in the following twenty years. The
  number of contests was never lower than 86 and
  only 30 constituencies failed to have a poll in
  the years between 1691 and 1715. After 1715 only
  an election every 7 years. Number of contests
  averaged below 40.

5
Hanoverian period

• Holmes after 1715, in the counties there was a
  prolonged electoral coma and the boroughs were
  all but wholly anaesthetised.
• very few voters were free to vote as they wished,
  Namier arguing that not one voter in 20 could
  freely exercise his statutory right
• electorate was thoroughly venal and regarded the
  vote as a piece of personal property
• elections were exclusive concerning only
  political and social elites
• political issues were unimportant in election
  contests and ideology had little part to play.

6
Hanoverian period

• More positive interpretations by Frank OGorman
  in Voters, Patrons and Parties and J A Phillips
  in Electoral Behaviour in Unreformed England and
  The Great Reform Bill in the Boroughs.
• electoral system was controlled by local elites,
  but with difficulty
• electoral system was never closed, despite its
  antiquated and unrepresentative features.
• electoral politics became an increasingly active
  and participatory experience because of
  traditions of popular independence, rise of the
  press and the growth of an articulate and
  educated public opinion
• electoral politics were local with variety of
  local traditions and cultures involved
• But do OGorman and Phillips focus on large, open
  and not very typical constituencies?

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County franchise

• The franchise was a mixture of systems dating
  back to the medieval period and based on the
  early modern areas of wealth and population.
• English counties based their representation on an
  act of 1430 which enabled 40 shilling freeholders
  to possess the vote - a uniform franchise.
• Counties tended to be large open constituencies,
  rarely under the control of a single aristocrat
• No residence qualification so outvoters could
  perform a crucial role.
• Largest county was Yorkshire with around 10,000
  voters. Kent, Norfolk and Northants had about
  6000. The smallest counties were Carnarvonshire
  and Rutland with around 500 voters.
• Some towns had county status, including Lincoln
  and York

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Borough franchise

• Not uniform
• Inhabitant boroughs (55). All residents could
  vote
• Burgage boroughs (41). Burgages were ancient
  pieces of real estate and property from which the
  right to vote was derived.
• Corporation boroughs (19). Right to vote was
  restricted to members of the corporation.
• Freemen boroughs (100) where only freemen could
  vote.
• University boroughs of Oxford and Cambridge.
  Franchise restricted to Doctors and Masters of
  Arts of the Universities. Cambridge had a Whig
  tradition and Oxford a Tory one.

9
Wales, Scotland, Ireland

• Wales 12 one member counties and 12 one member
  boroughs, totalling 24 seats in all. County
  franchise was 40 shilling freehold. Boroughs
  divided into 1 corporation borough 9 freemen
  boroughs and 2 inhabitant boroughs 
• Scotland joined the English system after the Act
  of Union in 1707. There were 30 one member
  counties and 15 districts of burghs returning 1
  MP each, thus totalling 45 seats in all. Scottish
  boroughs were very venal employing a method of
  indirect election. In counties, Scottish
  electoral qualifications were based upon the old
  extent and electorates were small ranging from
  around 21 to 240 voters.
• After 1801 the Irish constituencies consisted of
  32 two member counties, 2 two member boroughs
  (Cork and Dublin), 31 one member boroughs and the
  university seat of Trinity College Dublin
  returning a total of 100 MPs.

10
Who voted?

• It is very difficult to ascertain who a typical
  voter was in the eighteenth century?
• The borough electorates varied dramatically from
  all resident inhabitants to just the members of
  the corporation.
• In counties local interpretations of the 40
  shilling freeholder varied. In Cheshire there
  were a substantial number of leases for lives
  voters but in Yorkshire assessments of who
  qualified for a vote differed from parish to
  parish.
• Women were not excluded from the franchise by law
  this was an innovation of 1832.
• Elaine Chalus has uncovered evidence of women
  appointing male proxies to vote on their behalf.
  As the right to vote was often based on property,
  single women or widows owning that property could
  qualify for the vote.

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Poll books

• Evidence of who voted comes from poll books
• Act of 1696 for regulating parliamentary
  elections required written return of the poll
• Between 1696 and 1872 (secret ballot act) the
  returning officer of every county election (and
  from 1711 every borough election) had to return a
  copy of the poll
• These were held in Crown office of Chancery. In
  1907 they were destroyed.
• Local copies do survive.

12
Early manuscript poll book for Bedfordshire,
1684/5. Showing names of voters and their
residences
13
Early printed poll book from Bedfordshire in 1705.
14
Contested Elections Year Boroughs Counties Tota
l 1761 42 5 47 18 1768 62 11 73 27 1774 7
1 15 86 32 1780 65 3 68 26 1784 66 8 74 2
8 1790 67 8 75 28 1796 56 6 62 23 1802 67 8
75 28 1805 55 7 62 23 1807 59 13 72 27 18
12 59 5 64 24 1818 84 12 96 36 1820 66 11
77 29 1826 78 11 89 33 1830 75 10 85 32 183
1 65 13 78 29
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Ritual

• Crowds at election contests could be numbered in
  thousands, rather than hundreds.
• Candidates processed to the hustings in a great
  parade, led by flag bearers and bands playing the
  raucous election songs of the time.
• Successful candidates were chaired through the
  streets and alleyways of the town. Chairs vividly
  decorated with the colours and symbols of the new
  members of parliament.
• Losing candidates could also be chaired and if
  the successful MPs were particularly unpopular,
  effigies were carried round the town before being
  ceremoniously and publicly burnt.

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Typical Hustings Scene
17
Hogarth Chairing the Member
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Parliamentary Reform

• Economic reform (often supported by Tories)
  removal from voting of government placeholders
  and pensioners, distribution of more seats to
  counties. Eg Wyvills Yorkshire Association
  called for the redistribution of seats to
  counties.
• Fairer representation of interests (often
  supported by Whigs). Eliminate some of the rotten
  boroughs and re-distribute their seats to major
  unrepresented towns. Supported patronage making a
  distinction between nomination and influence
  respectively.
• More radical proposals broader franchise
  redistribution of seats shorter parliaments
  secret ballot. Move away from representation of
  property towards representation of people (See
  Cartwright, Take Your Choice!)

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Pressure for Reform

• Burdetts group attempted to chip away at the
  resistance to reform
• Tierney introduced measure to curb election
  expenses
• Burdett raised reform in a debate about economic
  reform
• 1820 Grampound disenfranchised seats
  redistributed to Yorkshire
• Catholic Emancipation 1828
• Russell introduced bills for the reform of Penryn
  and East Retford. Passed in the Commons but not
  in Lords.

20
Political Unions

• 1829-30 reform agitation revived
• July 1829 London Radical Association was formed
• December 1829 Birmingham Political Union led by
  Thomas Attwood
• In Leeds and Manchester unions were split between
  w/c m/c. In Leeds were 4 rival organisations
• Francis Place formed National Political Union in
  October 1831 which aimed at co-ordinating
  agitation. Failed to replace the BPU
• William Lovett and Hetherington set National
  Union of the Working Classes.

21
Medal struck in 1830 to support political unions.
On this side is a bust of Thomas Attwood (founder
of political unions) Text The purity of the
constitution. The peace and safety of the kingdom.
Text The Reform Bill Nothing Less. Bust of Earl
Grey
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Nature of Political Unions

• LoPatin argues are direct links between political
  unions and the Corresponding Societies of the
  1790s.
• Also represented moderate m/c. Attwood argued
  should represent the industrious classes
• Greatest concentration in North and the Midlands
  in all over 120 individual political unions
  were formed between 1830 and 1832.
• Ultimately, they endorsed the reform objectives
  of the Whig ministry

23
Election of 1830

• Only 89 seats were contested and only 175 new
  members were returned to Commons.
• But public opinion was vocal was clear was
  against Wellington's administration
• Brougham and Grey made it clear they would press
  for reform.
• Wellington came out against it. On the eve of
  Broughams motion government were defeated on
  minor issue resigned
• On 17th November 1830, for the first time, a
  ministry pledged to parliamentary reform took
  office.

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Draft Reform Bill

• 50 boroughs lost franchise 54 lost 1 MP 6 towns
  given 2 MPs 22 towns 1 MP 6 more seats given
  to London 22 counties were to have 2 extra
  seats 7 1 extra seat
• Was in favour of the secret ballot
• Recommended higher qualification of 20 to
  mitigate effects of ballot
• Five year parliaments to be introduced.
• Non residents lost their right to vote
• More polling places voter registration Ideas of
  responsible citizenship accepted but concepts of
  universal rights rejected.

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From Bill to Act

• 24 January 1831 cabinet amended the committee's
  draft - striking out the proposal for the secret
  ballot and lowering the franchise again to 10
  householders.
• 1 March 1831 bill was introduced to the Commons
  by Russell.
• 22 March at the second reading the Bill was
  passed by only 302 votes to 301.
• 18 April bill defeated at its third reading by
  299 votes to 291.
• May 1831 general election with Whig landslide.
• Second Reform bill introduced and won its second
  reading by 367 votes to 231
• In committee stages Marquis of Chandos won
  amendment that fifty pound tenants at will could
  enjoy the franchise in the counties
• 21 September bill defeated in Lords by 41 votes.
• Grey introduced slightly amended third bill.
• 13 April 1832 Lords rejected the third Reform
  bill by 184 votes to 175.
• May days Britain close to revolution.
• Wellington attempted to form a minority ministry
  but failed
• Grey used the creation of peers as a threat and
  in September 1832 the bill got through the Lords
  with a majority of 9.
• The first election to be held on the new
  franchise was December 1832.

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What changed?

• Were continuities procedures and rituals
  survived patrons used same techniques
• But Lords, monarchy, church and people all
  changed roles after 1832

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Electoral effects

• Over 40 pocket boroughs survived 12 which
  regularly returned same families
• 8 English boroughs with electorates less than 200
• Southern rural bias continued. London
  under-represented

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Positive electoral changes

• Registration boosted party organisation and
  canvassing candidates could locate voters
  accurately encouraged people to see themselves
  as voters
• Number of voters participating increased
  dramatically after 1832
• Partisan voting is the norm (97 of Newarks
  electorate cast straight party votes in 1841)

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Election No. of Voters
1826 106,397
1830 88,216
1831 74,638
1832 390,700
1835 272,946
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Summary

• Participation increases
• Organisation of elections
• Public more politicised
• 2 main political parties benefited
• National politics increases
• 1832 was an opportunity