Saga of the Volsungs

1
Saga of the Volsungs

• Combination of Myth, Legend and History.
• Most popular of the Icelandic fornaldar sagas.
• Action set in the Völkerwanderung (375 - 453 CE)
• Material also treated in the medieval German
  epic, das Nibelungenlied (c. 1200) an Austrian
  version from the other corner of the Germanic
  world.
• Saga based on oral lore roughly 800 years old.
• Direct sources for Volsunga saga are the poems of
  the Poetic Edda (recommended reading, 114-242).

2
Saga of the Volsungs

• Volsunga saga composed in Iceland in present form
  around 1270. Oldest manuscript from 1400.
• Saga style, much shorter and more intensive than
  the verse epic Nibelungenlied.
• Many inconsistencies exist between the Eddic
  poems and the two epic versions.
• In addition to the ancient Germanic legends,
  there are also Celtic and romance elements.
• Völkerwanderung as age of heroic myth.
• Sigurd as the Germanic Hero.

3
Saga of the Volsungs

• Why was the work so famous?
• National cultural identity (esp. in Norway)
• Dynastic considerations and divine legitimacy
• Epic tragedy of monumental proportions
• Age of Myth, heroic legends
• Many representations in Norse art
• Influence of the Volsunga saga
• Richard Wagner, W. Morris, J.R.R. Tolkien

4
Saga of the Volsungs

• Timeline of the Volsunga Saga History
• Prehistory of mythological events and legends.
• Historical events (c. 430-460 CE) of the Germanic
  Völkerwanderung.
• Legend mentioned in early heroic poems and lays,
  Beowulf and Lay of Ragnar, 600-800 CE.
• Legend spreads throughout the Germanic world,
  from Austria to Greenland. Oral poetry.
• Nibelungenlied in Germany c. 1200, Volsunga saga
  in Iceland c.1270.

5
Saga of the Volsungs

• Divisions within the Saga
• 1. Prehistory of Sigurd (1-13)
• 2. Mythological foundation (14-16) Otters
  Ransom
• 3. Heroic Legend (17-20) Sigurds revenge, dragon
• 4. Legendary Romance (21-25) Brynhild
• 5. History and Legend (26-33) Gjuki and Gudrun
• 6. History (34-44) Gudrun and Atli

6
Saga of the Volsungs
Characters named after (or possibly inspired by)
Historical Figures Many mentioned by the Eastern
Roman historian Jordanes, Origins and Deeds of
the Goths, 551 CE. Gunnar (Burgundian king
Gundahar d. 437 CE) Gjuki (Burgundian king,
Gibica d. 407 CE) Brynhild (Visigothic/Frankish
Queen Brunhilda, d. 613 CE) Sigurd (Frankish
king, husband of Brunhilda, Sigebert I d. 575
CE) Jormunrek (Gothic King Ermanaric d. 376
CE) Atli (Atilla the Hun d. 453 CE) Svanhild,
Hamdir and Sorli (Sunhilda, Ammius and Sarus
mentioned by Jordanes in connection with
Ermanaric).
7
Saga of the Volsungs 1-2

• Sigi, son of Odin, kills a thrall (Bredi) and is
  outlawed called wolf in hallowed places (35).
• Odin guides Sigi to a new land where he gives
  Sigi command of warships he wins the kingdom
  Hunland. Here imagined as a Germanic kingdom.
• When Sigi was old, his wifes brothers attacked
  him familial strife a recurrent theme!
• Sigi falls, but his son Rerir seeks vengeance
  against his own relatives.

8
Saga of the Volsungs 2-3

• Rerir and his wife have no children, so Rerir
  prays to Frigg she has Odin send a wish maiden
  (giantess Hljod) with a fertility apple (36).
• Rerir dies, but his wife gives birth (by
  C-section) to Volsung after a 6 year pregnancy!
  The dynasty is named after Volsung. (Engl. Waels
  in Beowulf).
• Volsung then marries Hljod a sort of incest?
• Twins Sigmund and Signy born, and 10 others.
• King Siggeir of Gautland asks for Signy in
  marriage Volsung hosts a wedding feast.

9
Saga of the Volsungs 3-4

• Odin appears (disguised) in the hall, thrusts a
  sword into the tree Barnstock and calls it a gift
  for the one who pulls it from the tree (38).
• Everyone tries, but only Sigmund can pull it out.
• King Siggeir offers to buy the sword, but Sigmund
  refuses to part with it.
• Siggeir marries Signy, who foretells only misery
  from the marriage (39).
• King Siggeir invites Volsung to visit him
  treachery planned also a common theme.

10
Saga of the Volsungs 5

• Volsung arrives at Gautland for the feast, but
  Signy warns him that he has been trapped.
• Volsung refuses to retreat from any battle he
  fights bravely, but is overwhelmed and killed.
• His 10 sons are taken captive Signy delays her
  brothers execution.
• A she-wolf kills one son each night in the
  forest.
• Signy send a servant to prepare the honey-trick.
• Sigmund kills the she-wolf and escapes (41f.).

11
Saga of the Volsungs 6-7

• Sigmund dwells alone in the forest, hiding from
  King Siggeir primitive, stone-age life.
• Signy has two sons, sends them to her brother to
  be tested famous flour-sack trial (42).
• Sons fail the test Sigmund kills his nephews on
  advice of their mother.
• Signy swaps appearance with a sorceress, visits
  her brother in the forest, sleeps with him.
  Incest.
• Signy gives birth to Sinfjotli, who passes the
  famous flour-sack trial with Sigmund.

12
Saga of the Volsungs 8

• Sigmund and Sinfjotli live together in the
  forest, hunt men for their money.
• They come across two men, steal their wolf skins,
  become werewolves themselves.
• Possibly a memory of youthful wolfpacks in
  Indo-European bronze-age culture.
• When Sinfjotli is grown, they plot vengeance.
• They attack Siggeir Sinfjotli kills his two
  half-brothers, but he and Sigmund are taken
  captive.

13
Saga of the Volsungs 8

• King Siggeir has Sigmund and Sinfjotli buried
  alive, separated by a great stone slab (46).
• Signy smuggles Sigmunds sword to them before
  they are enclosed they use it to escape.
• They then set fire to Siggeirs hall in the
  night.
• They ask Signy to leave, but she confesses her
  incest out of desire for vengeance she is now
  content to die with Siggeir.
• Sigmund returns to Hunland, becomes king.

14
Saga of the Volsungs 8-10

• King Sigmund marries Borghild, has son Helgi.
• Little is heard of Sinfjotli until later
  incestuous line does not continue.
• Prince Helgi wins battles, fights King Hodbrod to
  win the latters reluctant fiancée, Sigrun.
• Helgi was a famous king in other sagas, but plays
  no further role in the Volsunga saga.
• Sinfjotli desires fiancée of Queen Borghilds
  brother kills him to get the woman.
• Marital conflicts a recurrent theme in this saga.

15
Saga of the Volsungs 10-11

• Borghild offers poison to Sinfjotli Sigmund
  drinks it twice, but is too drunk the third time.
• Sinfjotli knows it is poison, drinks and dies.
• Sigmund takes his body to the forest, where Odin
  appears and takes the body away.
• Sigmund drives away Borghild, she dies.
• Sigmund decides to marry Hjordis, which starts a
  war with her first suitor, King Lyngi.
• Lyngi attacks old Sigmund but he cannot be
  defeated until Odin appears to break his sword.

16
Saga of the Volsungs 12-13

• Queen Hjordis escapes death in the battle, finds
  her dying husband Sigmund and collects the shards
  of his famous sword.
• Hjordis swaps clothes and names with servant.
• Danish Viking Alf appears, takes the girls and
  treasure back to his father in Denmark.
• King Hjalprek discovers her true identity
  Hjordis marries his son, King Alf.
• Hjordis gives birth to Sigmunds son, Sigurd.

17
The Ramsund carving in Sweden, depicting Sigurd
and many of his adventures.
18
The Ramsund carving of Sigurd.
1) Sigurd is touches the roasting heart. 2) The
birds tell Sigurd of Regins planned treachery.
3) Regin is dead, lying beside his own head. 4)
Sigurd's horse Grani is laden with the dragon's
treasure. 5) Sigurd killing Fafnir. 6) Ótr from
the mythological beginning of the saga.
19
Saga of the Volsungs 13-14

• Sigurd grows up in Hjalpreks hall in great love
  and honor.
• Regin, Sigurds foster-father, persuades him to
  confront the Dragon Fafnir and take his wealth.
• Regin recounts the Tale of Otters Ransom (57).
• Hreidmar, with sons Fafnir, Otr, and Regin.
• Otr is a shape-shifter, hunts salmon in the shape
  of an otter.
• Loki kills Otr with a stone, not knowing his true
  identity.

20
Saga of the Volsungs 14

• Odin, Hœnir, and Loki arrive at Hreidmars hall
  that evening, show their lucky catch to their
  host, and are taken prisoner.
• The Ransom of the Gods is to fill the Otter skin
  with gold and then cover it with gold.
• Loki goes to fetch the ransom he uses Rans net
  to catch the dwarf Andvari in the form of a pike.
• Andvari surrenders his gold, even his last little
  ring, but curses the ring and the golden treasure.

21
Saga of the Volsungs 14

• Loki ransoms Odin and Hœnir the gold just
  manages to cover the erect Otter skin one
  whisker protrudes, and Odin covers that with
  Andvaris ring (Andvaranautr).
• Andvaris curse is thus transferred to Hreidmars
  family Fafnir kills his father and takes all the
  gold for himself.
• While lying on his gold, his evil and greed
  transform Fafnir into a dragon Lingworm.
• Regin wishes to exploit Sigurd to recover his
  gold.

22
Saga of the Volsungs 14-16

• Sigurd is willing to aid Regin, asks only for a
  sword worthy of such a great feat.
• Sigurd breaks the first two swords fashioned by
  Regin. Fetishism of the magic weapon.
• Sigurd collects the shards of his fathers sword,
  Gram (broken by Odin), uses those to fashion a
  new sword it cleaves the anvil in half!
• Before Sigurd can slay the dragon, he must first
  avenge his father, King Sigmund.
• Gripir tells Sigurd of his future (short chapter).

23
Saga of the Volsungs 17-18

• Sigurd collects an army and sails to attack the
  sons of Hunding.
• He meets a man (Hnikar or Fjolnir Odin), who
  gives Sigurd advice before the battle.
• In battle, Sigurd wades through blood to kill
  every living son of Hunding Sigmund avenged!
• Regin reminds Sigurd of his promise to kill
  Fafnir he advises Sigurd to lie in a hole and
  wait for the dragon to pass overhead
• Sigurd advances bravely Regin runs home, afraid.

24
Saga of the Volsungs 18

• As Sigurd digs his hole, Odin arrives to tell him
  to dig several extra holes (for the dragon
  blood).
• Sigurd waits for Fafnir, thrusts the sword Gram
  into the dragons heart, causing his death wound.
• Lengthy Dialogue ensues between Sigurd and the
  dying Dragon, Fafnir Who are you, and tell me
  about your parents
• Fafnir tells Sigurd that with the gold he will
  inherit the curse of Andvari Sigurd takes the
  gold anyway.

25
Saga of the Volsungs 19-20

• Regin returns when it is safe, having hid like a
  coward while Sigurd confronted Fafnir.
• Regin is unsure whether to gloat, to mourn his
  dead brother, or to seek vengeance against
  Sigurd.
• Regin asks Sigurd to roast his own brothers
  heart so that he can eat it.
• While roasting the heart, Sigurd tastes the blood
  to see if the meat has been cooked when it
  touches his tongue he can understand the language
  of birds (nuthatches in some versions).

26
Saga of the Volsungs 19-20

• The birds tell him of the wisdom to be gained by
  eating the heart, and also of Regins treachery.
• The birds also tell him that he would be better
  off if he killed Regin, took the gold, and
  seduced the beautiful Brynhild.
• So Sigurd lops off Regins head and eats most of
  the dragon heart himself. He also gets the gold.
• He loads his horse Grani with the gold, almost
  too much to carry, rides off.

27
Saga of the Volsungs

• Sigurd and Grani
• Illustration by Arthur Rackham (1867 1939) for
  Richard Wagners Ring Cycle Operas.

28
Saga of the Volsungs
Reforging Gram Illustration by Arthur Rackham
(1867 1939) for Richard Wagners Ring Cycle
Operas.
29
Saga of the Volsungs
Gram reforged Illustration by Arthur Rackham
(1867 1939) for Richard Wagners Ring Cycle
Operas.
30
Saga of the Volsungs

• Fafnir, the Dragon

31
Saga of the Volsungs
Fafnir, the Dragon
32
Saga of the Volsungs

• Fafnir is slain

33
Saga of the Volsungs
Sigurd tastes Fafnirs blood
34
Saga of the Volsungs
Brynhild behind the wall of flames
35
Saga of the Volsungs 21

• Sigurd rides to Frakkland (land of the Franks),
  sees a great light a wall of fire.
• Sigurd discovers the Valkyrie Brynhild asleep,
  cuts off her armor and awakens her (67).
• She tells him that she was punished by Odin for
  supporting young Agnar against old Hjalmgunnar in
  a battle cursed with marriage!
• She vowed she would only marry a man who knew no
  fear who could only be Sigurd.

36
Saga of the Volsungs 21-22

• Sigurd asks the Valkyrie to teach him the way of
  mighty things. She recites a long poem, telling
  him of runes and magic (67-71). Compare to the
  Eddic poem, Sigrdrifumal.
• Brynhild recites more wisdom to him very
  similar to the lines of Havamal, where Odin
  speaks of how a good Viking warrior should act.
• Sigurd is impressed by her beauty and wisdom He
  swears that he will marry her, and she wants that
  too they pledge vows between them.

37
Saga of the Volsungs 23-25

• Sigurds appearance described (72).
• Chivalric elements have been added to the text
  here some contamination from medieval courtly
  romance (courtesy, for example).
• Sigurds Second Meeting of Brynhild at Heimar
  textual corruption or inconsistency?
• Brynhild stays in her bower, embroiders tapestry
  with Sigurds noble deeds he sees her in the
  tower, but does not remember her.

38
Saga of the Volsungs 25

• Author attempts to reconcile different traditions
  about the relationship between the hero and the
  Valkyrie. The hero has a divine and a mortal
  lover.
• Sigurd vows to gain her affection (through
  gold!).
• Brynhild tells Sigurd that they cannot marry, for
  she is a shield-maiden destined to fight, and
  he is fated to marry Gudrun.
• Sigurd insists no kings daughter will entice
  me and swears a second time to marry her.

39
Saga of the Volsungs 26-27

• The Burgundians are introduced
• King Gjuki (and evil Queen-witch Grimhild), his
  sons Gunnar, Hogni and Guttorm, and his daughter
  Gudrun.
• King Atli (Attila the Hun) introduced as well
  here he is the brother of Brynhild.
• Gudrun dreams of a hawk she decides to visit
  Brynhild for an interpretation (76).
• Brynhild interprets dream of a stag (cite 77f.).

40
Saga of the Volsungs 28

• Grimhild decides that Sigurd would be a good
  catch for her family. She brews the Ale of
  Forgetfulness that causes him to forget Brynhild
  and his love for her.
• Sigurd stays for nearly 3 years. King Gjuki
  offers him his daughter Gudrun, and Sigurd agrees
  to the marriage.
• Gunnar and Hogni swear a Pact of Brotherhood
  with their new brother-in-law.

41
Saga of the Volsungs 28-29

• Norse society generally patrilocal bride
  travels to her husbands home. Sigurds position
  thus unusual, vulnerable, in his wifes land.
• Sigurd gives Gudrun some of Fafnirs heart,
  making her grimmer and wiser than before.
• Queen Grimhild suggests that her son Gunnar marry
  Brynhild! He likes the idea.
• Brynhild again surrounded by a fire wall only
  the man brave enough to pass can marry her!

42
Saga of the Volsungs 29

• Gunnar is unable to pass through the fire, even
  on Sigurds horse, Grani.
• Sigurd exchanges shapes with Gunnar, Grani leaps
  the flames, and Sigurd seduces Brynhild (while
  pretending to be Gunnar).
• Brynhild is astonished that someone other than
  Sigurd could pass through the flames, but he
  passed her test, so she agrees to marry him.

43
Saga of the Volsungs 29

• Sigurd sleeps with Brynhild for three nights, but
  places his sword Gram between them. A similar
  scene in Tristan, a medieval German epic.
• Sigurd takes a trophy from Brynhild Andvaranaut
  the cursed ring he had given her!
• Brynhild travels to marry Gunnar. She leaves
  behind Aslaug, her daughter by Sigurd.
• After the wedding celebration, Sigurd gets his
  memory back he is full of sorrow, but keeps his
  thoughts to himself.

44
Saga of the Volsungs 30

• Two Queens in any kingdom are too many. Brynhild
  and Gudrun dispute over who should be more
  esteemed. Pride and Insults.
• Gudrun proves that her husband Sigurd is best,
  because he was the one who took Brynhild
  herself! And Gudrun has the ring to prove it!
• Brynhild is deeply insulted, feels betrayed by
  Sigurd, publicly insulted by Gudrun, and
  humiliated by her marriage to second-rate Gunnar.

45
Saga of the Volsungs 31

• Brynhilds grief only increases. She takes to her
  bed, depressed, will not talk to anyone.
• Brynhild insults her husband Gunnar (85) and
  curses his mother, evil Queen Grimhild, who
  caused the whole misfortune.
• Brynhild tries to murder Gunnar, but his brother
  Hogni prevents her she vows never again to be
  happy. More lamentation she hides in her room.
• Sigurd is asked to speak with Brynhild.

46
Saga of the Volsungs 31

• Sigurd and Brynhild speak together (cite 87).
• They now both remember their earlier meeting.
• He still loves her, regrets his past mistakes,
  desires that she become his wife.
• She still loves him, but now wants him dead! Its
  a thin line between love and hate.
• Brynhild tells Gunnar a lie that Sigurd had sex
  with her while they were together behind the wall
  of fire (88). Gunnar plots revenge.

47
Saga of the Volsungs 32

• Betrayal of Sigurd Gunnar and Hogni vow to get
  vengeance for Brynhild (and get the gold).
• They do not wish to break their vows, so they
  persuade their brother Guttorm to kill Sigurd.
• They feed Guttorm snake and wolf, until he
  becomes violent and fierce through witchcraft.
• Guttorm attacks while Sigurd is sleeping, skewers
  him to his bed. Before he dies, Sigurd throws
  Gram and slices Guttorm in half.

48
Saga of the Volsungs 32-33

• Gudrun awakes in bed covered with Sigurds blood
  Brynhild laughs when she hears Gudrun crying.
• Brynhild soon laments the death of heroic Sigurd.
  
• She bestows gold, gives a final prophesy the
  deaths of everyone then stabs herself.
• Sigurd, Brynhild, and Sigurds son (by Gudrun)
  are all burned together on a funeral pyre (93).
• Brynhilds Ride to Hel reunites her with
  Sigurd, whom she was fated to love (Edda, 192-4).

49
Saga of the Volsungs 34

• Gudrun now becomes the central figure of the
  saga.
• She leaves her brothers, travels through the
  wilderness to Denmark, stays 7 seasons.
• Grimhild wants Gudrun back, travels with brothers
  to Gudrun, offer compensation and an evil
  potion with runes (94f.).
• Gudrun forgets her grievances but she still
  dislikes Grimhilds plan for her to marry Atli
  (95).

50
Saga of the Volsungs 34-35

• Grimhild convinces Gudrun to marry Atli, though
  she is unhappy with the idea her life with Atli
  contains little affection.
• Atli has bad dreams, which Gudrun interprets
  (96).
• Atli lusts after Sigurds gold, now in the hands
  of Gunnar and Hogni. He has a claim, since the
  inheritance should pass through Gudrun to him.
• Atli invites Burgundians to his hall Gudrun
  suspects treachery, ties wolf hairs onto a ring
  and sends secret runes to warn her brothers.

51
Saga of the Volsungs 35-37

• Ambassador Vingi recarves the warning runes,
  presents the invitation and offer of power (97).
• Kostbera, Hognis wife, reads the runic warnings
  correctly and warns Hogni.
• Kostbera has dreams, which Hogni interprets very
  poorly (98).
• Glaumvor, Gunnars (new) wife, also has dreams
  which he interprets poorly (99).
• The brothers know the danger, but decide to face
  their fate anyway.

52
Saga of the Volsungs 37-38

• Ambassador Vingi brings them to Atlis hall,
  where they see the trap set for them.
• They kill boastful Vingi by beating him with the
  blunt ends of their axes.
• Atli welcomes them and demands they hand over
  Sigurds gold Gunnar and Hogni refuse (100).
• Atli swears to avenge Sigurd fighting becomes
  general Gudrun joins her brothers in the fight.
• Atli loses much in the battle, laments his fate.

53
Saga of the Volsungs 39

• All of the Burgundians are eventually killed
  except Hogni and Gunnar.
• Gunnar is captured and put in chains.
• Hogni fights resolutely, but he too is
  overpowered and captured (102). Faces torture
  bravely.
• Thrall (slave) Hjallis heart is cut out, shown
  to Gunnar, who can tell by its tremulous quaking
  that it is not Hognis!
• Hognis resolute heart is cut out he laughs
  while being killed! Example of Viking pride!

54
Saga of the Volsungs 39-40

• Gunnar recognizes Hognis heart knows he is now
  the Last of the Burgundian Kings (103).
• Gunnar bound and thrown into a Snake Pit to die
  Gudrun throws him a harp which he plays with his
  toes!
• Gunnar calms all the snakes except one large
  hideous adder which kills him (103).
• Atli gloats over his victory to Gudrun, who
  pretends to bow to his will, but plots vengeance.
• A funeral feast is prepared for Gunnar and Hogni.

55
Saga of the Volsungs 40

• Gudrun seizes her two sons by Atli, slits their
  throats, and serves them to Atli (104).
• Atli is (justifiably) outraged by Gudruns
  behavior.
• Niflung, Hognis son, helps Gudrun get her
  vengeance. Together, they skewer drunken Atli in
  his bed (104). (Compare with Attila and Ildico).
• Gudrun and dying Atli exchange lies and taunts
  but she agrees to bury him well, which she does.
• Gudrun sets fire to Atlis hall before she
  leaves, killing all those remaining inside (105).

56
Saga of the Volsungs

• Andvaris Cursed Gold has now killed
• Hreidmar the Giant
• His sons Regin the Smith and Fafnir the Dragon
• Sigurd the Dragon Slayer
• Brynhild the Valkyrie
• The Burgundian Kings Gunnar and Hogni
• Dozens or hundreds of lesser characters (all of
  the warriors belonging to Gunnar and to Atli).
• Only Gudrun is left the curse now follows her.

57
Saga of the Volsungs 41-42

• Gudrun wishes to die, tries to drown herself, but
  is carried by waves to the fortress of King
  Jonakr.
• Beautiful Svanhild, daughter of Sigurd and
  Gudrun, goes with her.
• Jonakr marries Gudrun, they have 3 children
• Hamdir, Sorli and Erp the names Sunhilda,
  Sarus, and Ammius mentioned in Roman chronicles
  (Jordaness history of the Goths).
• Svanhild betrothed to Jormunrek (historical
  Erminrichus, d. 376 CE).

58
Saga of the Volsungs 42

• Jormunrek foolishly sends his young son, Randver,
  and evil advisor, Bikki, to fetch beautiful
  Svanhild.
• Bikki advises Randver to seduce Svanhild, since
  he deserves a beautiful young wife more than his
  aged father (107).
• Bikki tells Jormunrek that his son has betrayed
  him and become the lover of his betrothed!
• Jormunrek has Randver hanged, and he has Svanhild
  trampled to death by horses (107).

59
Saga of the Volsungs 43-44

• Gudrun hears of her daughters violent death and
  urges her young sons to vengeance (107).
• Lamentations of Gudrun (108) is taken from the
  poem The Whetting of Gudrun (Edda 234-7).
• Gudrun prays to Sigurd, that he might ride from
  Hel and take her to his world. Suggestion of
  death.
• Meanwhile, Gudruns sons are given magic that
  protects them from metal (but not from stone).
• They ask their brother Erp if he will help them
  his cryptic answer leads them to kill him (108).

60
Saga of the Volsungs 44

• They soon realize the wisdom of Erps answer,
  regret their rashness in killing him.
• They attack Jormunrek, slice off his hands and
  his feet but Erp is not there to slice off his
  head, so Jormunrek is able to call for help!
• The defenders attack, but their weapons will not
  bite into the magic armor of Hamdir and Sorli.
• A tall, ancient, one-eyed man appears and advises
  them to stone the boys to death, and it is done.
• Odin puts an end to this line everyone dead!