Chapter 10 Blood

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Chapter 10Blood
Out damned spot! Out, I say Heres the smell
of the blood still, All the perfumed of Arabia
will not Sweeten this little hand. Oh, Oh,
Oh! William Shakespeares Lady Macbeth, in
Macbeth
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Blood
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Blood
Students will learn

• That an antibody and an antigen of different
  types will agglutinate, or clump, when mixed
  together.
• That the significance of the evidence depends on
  a characteristics relative occurrence in the
  population.

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Blood

• Students will be able to
• Determine whether a stain is blood.

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Blood

• Determine the blood type of a simulated
  bloodstain using the ABO/Rh system.
• Explore bloodstain patterns as a function of
  velocity, direction, and height of fall.

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Blood

• Use technology and mathematics to improve
  investigations and communications.

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Serology

• Serology is the examination and analysis of body
  fluids. A forensic serologist may analyze a
  variety of body fluids including saliva, semen,
  urine, and blood. From 1950 to the late 1980s,
  forensic serology was a most important part of
  lab procedures.

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Serology

• With the development of DNA techniques, more
  time, money, and significance was placed in
  developing DNA labs. However, with limited funds
  and the time required for DNA testing, most labs
  still use many of the basic serology testing
  procedures.

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Blood Characteristics
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Blood Characteristics

• Erythrocytes
• Leukocytes
• Thrombocytes
• Serum

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Blood Characteristics

• Plasma is the fluid portion of the blood (55)
• Cells (45)
• Erythrocytes are red blood cells. They are
  responsible for oxygen distribution.

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Blood Characteristics

• Leukocytes are the white blood cells they are
  responsible for cleaning the system of foreign
  invaders.
• Thrombocytes or platelets are responsible for
  blood clotting
• Serum is the liquid that separates from the blood
  when a clot is formed.

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Historical Perspective of Blood Typing

• Around 1900, Karl Landsteiner discovered that
  there are four different types of human blood
  based on the presence or absence of specific
  antigens found on the surface of the red blood
  cells.

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Historical Perspective of Blood Typing

• In 1940, Landsteiner and Weiner reported the
  discovery of the Rh factor by studying the blood
  of the Rhesus monkey. 85 of Caucasians, 94 of
  Black Americans and 99 of all Asians are Rh
  positive.

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Blood Terminology

• ABO blood groupsbased on having an A, B, both or
  no antigens on red blood cells
• Rh factormay be present on red blood cells
  positive if present and negative if not

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Blood Terminology

• Antigena substance that can stimulate the body
  to make antibodies. Certain antigens (proteins)
  found in the plasma of the red blood cells
  membrane account for blood type.

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Blood Terminology

• Antibodya substance that reacts with an antigen
• Agglutinationclumping of red blood cells will
  result if blood types with different antigens are
  mixed

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• Unagglutinated blood smear
•       

• Agglutinated blood

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Antibodies seeking specific antigens   Antibodies agglutinating red cells
                                                         
             (not actual shape or size of antigens and antibodies)              (not actual shape or size of antigens and antibodies)              (not actual shape or size of antigens and antibodies)
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Unknown Stain at a Scene

• Questions to be answered
• Is it blood?
• Is it human blood?

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Unknown Stain at a Scene
WHY?

• Whose is it?
• Determine blood type, alcohol content, drugs
  present
• Determine the method(s) in which blood may have
  been deposited

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Presumptive Tests forBlood Determination
What does presumptive mean?

• Kastle-Meyer color testa mixture of
  phenolphthalein and hydrogen peroxide the
  hemoglobin will cause the formation of a deep
  pink color if blood is present

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Presumptive Tests forBlood Determination

• Hematest tabletreacts with the heme group in
  blood causing a blue-green color
• Luminol testreaction with blood to produce light

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Presumptive Tests forBlood Determination

• Leucomalachite test a mixture of leucomalachite
  green, acetic acid and distilled water is placed
  on sample then a drop of sodium perborate added
  will turn blood a green-ish color

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Human vs Animal Blood

• Microscopic observation
• Precipitin test

Precipitin an antibody that reacts with a
specific antigen to produce a precipitate
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Human vs Animal Blood

• Precipitin testblood is injected into a rabbit
• antibodies are formed
• the rabbits blood is extracted as an antiserum
• the antiserum is placed on sample blood.

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Human vs Animal Blood

• Precipitin test
• The sample will react with human proteins, if
  human blood is present.
• This test is very sensitive and requires only a
  small amount of blood.

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Animal Blood

• Larger nucleic red blood cells

Frog Blood
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Human Blood

• Red blood cells are most numerous 5 to 6 million
  per mm3
• White blood cells are larger and less numerous 5
  to 10,000 per mm3

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Human Blood

• Platelets are tiny, cellular fragments 350 to
  500,00 per mm3

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Blood Typing

• Blood type A has antigen A on the surface of the
  cell and will agglutinate with blood type B.
• Blood type B has antigen B on the surface of the
  cell and will agglutinate with blood type A.

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Blood Typing

• Blood type AB has antigens A and B on the
  surface of the cells and will agglutinate with
  either anti A or anti B antibody.
• Blood type O has neither antigen A or B and will
  not agglutinate.

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Blood Groups
Can Give Blood To
Can Get Blood From
Antigen
Type
Antibody
A
A
B
A, AB
O, A
B, AB
O , B
B
B
A
Neither A nor B
AB
A and B
AB
A, B, O, AB
Neither A nor B
A, B, O, AB
O
A and B
O
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• Antiserum- human or animal serum containing
  antibodies that are specific for one or more
  antigens.

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Blood Reactions to Antiserum
REACTION
Anti-A Serum
Anti-B Serum
BLOOD TYPE
No agglutination Agglutination Agglutination No
agglutination
Agglutination No agglutination Agglutination No
agglutination
Type A Type B Type AB Type O
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Population Distribution of Blood Types in the
U.S.
Type
Percent
O
45
A
40
B
11
AB
4
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Typing of Dried Blood Stains

• Absorption elution technique
• Antiserum is placed on the blood stain.
  Antibodies combine with the specific antigens.
• Unreacted serum is washed off the bloodstain.

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Typing of Dried Blood Stains

• Stained material is heated to 56 degrees C,
  breaking the antibody-antigen bond. This process
  is known as elution.
• Known red blood cells are added. Agglutination
  will occur if antigens present on the added RBCs
  were also originally on the stained material.

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Blood Pattern Reconstruction

• Scene Pattern Reconstruction
• 1. Stain condition
• 2. Pattern
• 3. Distribution
• 4. Location
• 5. Directionality

From Cracking Cases by Dr. Henry C. Lee
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Blood Pattern Reconstruction

• Lab Results Reconstruction
• 1. Genetic marker typing
• 2. Age Determination
• 3. Source Determination
• 4. Race Determination
• 5. Sex Determination

From Cracking Cases by Dr. Henry C. Lee
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Blood Spatter Evidence

• A field of forensic investigation which deals
  with the physical properties of blood and the
  patterns produced under different conditions as a
  result of various forces being applied to the
  blood. Blood, as a fluid, follows the laws of
  physics.

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People of Historical Significance

• Paul Kirk (1902-1970) was a professor of
  criminalistics and biochemistry at Berkeley in
  California. He actively assisted law enforcement
  organizations from 1935 to 1967. His book, Crime
  Investigations, contained a chapter in which he
  discussed the application of blood stain pattern
  analysis to criminal investigations. Dr. Kirk
  analyzed the blood stain pattern photos from the
  Sam Sheppard case and was instrumental in
  Sheppards release at his second trial. Find out
  more about the case at Courttvs crime library.

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Blood Droplet Characteristics

• A blood droplet will remain spherical in space
  until it collides with a surface
• Once a blood droplet impacts a surface, a
  bloodstain is formed.

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Blood Droplet Characteristics

• A droplet falling from the same height, hitting
  the same surface at the same angle, will produce
  a stain with the same basic shape.
• How will the shape change as the height is
  increased or decreased?

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Blood Droplet Volume

• A droplet contains approximately 0.05 cc of fluid
• Is not the same for all blood droplets, but is
  generally from 0.03 cc to 0.15 cc

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Blood Droplet Volume

• Is directly dependent upon the surface or orifice
  from which it originates
• The impact area is called the target.

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Conditions Affecting Shape of Blood Droplet

• Size of the droplet
• Angle of impact
• Velocity at which the blood droplet left its
  origin

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Conditions Affecting Shape of Blood Droplet

• Height
• Texture of the target surface
• On clean glass or plastic droplet will have
  smooth outside edges
• On a rough surface will produce scalloping on
  the edges

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Questions Answered by Blood Spatter
Interpretation

• The distance between the target surface and the
  origin of blood
• The point(s) of origin of the blood

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Questions Answered by Blood Spatter
Interpretation

• Movement and direction of a person or an object
• The number of blows, shots, etc. causing the
  bloodshed and/or the dispersal of blood.

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Questions Answered by Blood Spatter
Interpretation

• Type and direction of impact that produced the
  bloodshed
• The position of the victim and/or object during
  bloodshed
• Movement of the victim and/or object after
  bloodshed

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Bloodstain Terminology

• Angle of impactangle at which blood strikes a
  target surface.

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Bloodstain Terminology

• Bloodstain transferwhen a bloody object comes
  into contact with a surface and leaves a
  patterned blood image on the surface

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Bloodstain Terminology

• Backspatterblood that is directed back toward
  the source of energy
• Cast-offblood that is thrown from an object in
  motion

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Bloodstain Terminology

• Contact stainbloodstains caused by contact
  between a wet blood-bearing surface and a second
  surface which may or may not have blood on it

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Bloodstain Terminology

• Transferan image is recognizable and may be
  identifiable with a particular object
• Swipewet blood is transferred to a surface which
  did not have blood on it

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Bloodstain Terminology

• Wipea non-blood bearing object moves through a
  wet bloodstain, altering the appearance of the
  original stain

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Bloodstain Terminology

• Directionalityrelates to the direction a drop of
  blood traveled in space from its point of origin

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Bloodstain Terminology

• Terminal velocitythe greatest speed to which a
  free falling drop of blood can accelerate in air.
  It is dependent upon the acceleration of gravity
  and the friction of the air against the
  bloodapproximately 25.1 feet/second.

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Bloodstain Terminology

• High velocity
• greater than 25 feet per second
• usually 100 feet per second
• gives a fine mist appearance

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Bloodstain Terminology

• Medium velocity
• 5 to 25 feet per second
• Low velocity
• 5 feet per second or less

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Bloodstain Patterns

• The shape of a blood drop
• Roundif it falls straight down at a 90 degree
  angle.

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Bloodstain Patterns

• Ellipticalblood droplets elongate as the angle
  decreases from 90 to 0 degrees the angle can be
  determined by the following formula

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Categories of Blood Stains
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Passive
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Transfer
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Projected
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Arterial Spurt
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LOW MEDIUM
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HIGH VELOCITY
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Impact

• The more acute the angle of impact, the more
  elongated the stain.

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Impact

• 90 degree angles are perfectly round drops with
  80 degree angles taking on a more elliptical
  shape.

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Impact

• At about 30 degrees the stain will begin to
  produce a tail.
• The more acute the angle, the easier it is to
  determine the direction of travel.

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Impact
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Bloodstain Patterns

• The harder and less porous the surface, the less
  the blood drop will break apart.

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Bloodstain Patterns

• The softer and more porous the surface, the more
  a blood drop will break apart.
• The pointed end of the blood stain faces the
  direction of travel.

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Area of Intersectionand Convergence

• The location of the blood source can be
  determined by drawing lines from the various
  blood droplets to the point where they intersect.
  

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Area of Intersectionand Convergence

• The Point of Convergence
• The intersection of two bloodstain paths,
  where the stains come from opposite sides of the
  impact pattern.

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Area of Intersectionand Convergence
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Area of Intersectionand Convergence

• The area of convergence is the point of origin
  the spot where the blow occurred. It may be
  established at the scene with measurement of
  angles by use of strings.

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Area of Intersectionand Convergence
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Blood Evidence

• Class evidence for blood would include blood
  type. If you can determine the DNA you would
  have individual evidence.

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Blood Evidence

• Blood stain patterns are considered
  circumstantial evidence in a court room. Experts
  could argue many points including direction of
  travel, height of the perpetrator, position of
  the victim, left/right hand, whether the body was
  moved, etc.

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Other Aspects of Serology Sperm

• Among the smallest and most highly specialized
  cells in the human body
• Has a head and a tail

400X
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Other Aspects of Serology Sperm

• Contains 23 chromosomes with the genetic material
  found in the head
• Males release 2.5 to 6 milliliters of seminal
  fluid per ejaculation with approximately 100
  million sperm per milliliter

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Semen

• Determination of Seminal Fluid
• Acid phosphatase color test
• The presence of acid phosphatase, the enzyme
  secreted by the prostate gland into the seminal
  fluid, will turn purple when sodium alpha
  naphthylphosphate and Fast Blue B solution are
  placed on it.

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Semen

• It will also fluoresce under UV light when it
  comes in contact with 4-methyl umbelliferyl
  phosphate.

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Semen

• Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) or p30 unique
  to seminal plasma
• P30 is isolated and injected into a rabbit where
  antibodies are produced (anti-p30).

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Semen

• The stain extract is place in one well of an
  electrophoresis plate and the anti-p30 in the
  opposite well. The electric is applied and the
  antigens and antibodies move toward each other.
  The formation of a precipitation line between the
  wells shows the presence of p30 in the sample
  stain. It, therefore, must be seminal fluid.

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Secretors

• 80 of the population are secretors. Their
  blood-type antigens are found in high
  concentration in their body fluids such as
  saliva, semen, vaginal secretions and gastric
  juice.

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People in the News

• Herbert L. MacDonell is considered by many as
  the father of modern bloodstain pattern analysis.
  He is the director of the Lab of Forensic Science
  and founder of the Bloodstain Evidence Institute
  (1973) in Corning, NY. His work, Bloodstain
  Pattern Interpretation, helped to jump start this
  discipline. He has consulted on criminal cases in
  all 50 states, in addition to testifying in the
  O.J. Simpson trial and in the assassination cases
  of Sen. Robert F. Kennedy and Dr. Martin Luther
  King Jr.

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More about Serology

• For additional information about blood evidence,
  and famous crimes that involves serology, check
  out Court TVs Crime Library at
• www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/forensics/sero
  logy/1.html