A

1
AP IFinal Exam Cumulative Review SlidesFall
2013

• Lectures 1-17

2
Body Regions
Figure 1.7 in Textbook
3
Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical Position body standing erect, facing
forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms facing
forward

• Terms of Relative Position
• Superior versus Inferior
• Anterior versus Posterior
• Medial versus Lateral
• Ipsilateral versus Contralateral
• Proximal versus Distal
• Superficial versus Deep

4
Homeostasis
A CRITICAL (and very testable) concept in
physiology
Bodys maintenance of a stable internal
environment Absence of homeostasis DISEASE

• Homeostatic Mechanisms monitor aspects of the
  internal environment and corrects any changes
• Receptors - provide information about environment
• Control center - tells what a particular value
  should be
• Effectors - causes responses to change internal
  environment

Negative feedback deviation from set point
progressively lessens
Positive feedback deviation from set point gets
progressively greater
5
Homeostasis

• Remember that homeostasis does NOT mean constant!
• Continual variations occur in body systems
• Gives rise to normal ranges (See Appendix B)
• Examples of negative feedback
• Temperature regulation, blood pressure, blood
  glucose levels
• Examples of positive feedback
• Blood clotting, milk production, uterine
  contraction

6
Chemical Bond Summary
TYPE OF BOND DEFINITION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
IONIC when atoms lose or gain electrons becoming ions, and then oppositely charged ions are attracted to one another bond is broken by water salts, NaCl
COVALENT when 1 or more pair(s) of electrons is/are shared by atoms (single, double, triple) strong bond the bonds holding a molecule of H20 together, CO2
HYDROGEN when a (slightly positive) hydrogen atom that is already covalently bonded to a molecule is attracted to a slightly negative atom. (typically with O, N) Very weak bond in molecules whose purpose is to easily break and then come back together reactions between water molecules (i.e. ice to water to gas) DNA chains
7
Acids, Bases, and Salts
Electrolytes soluble inorganic substances that
release ions in water (aqueous) and will conduct
an electrical current
NaCl ? Na Cl-
Acids substances that release hydrogen ions
(protons) in water
HCl ? H Cl-
Bases substances that release OH- (or other
negative) ions in water that can combine with,
and remove, H from solution
NaOH ? Na OH-
Salts electrolytes formed by the reaction
between an acid and a base (anions/cations EXCEPT
H or OH-)
HCl NaOH ? H2O NaCl
8
pH (H concentration)
Notice ?H, ?pH, ?OH-
Notice ?H, ?pH, ?OH-
pH scale - indicates the concentration of FREE
hydrogen ions in solution (think power of
Hydrogen)
pH of human blood plasma 7.35 7.45
(AVG 7.4)
Acids substances that release hydrogen ions
(protons) in water
Bases substances that release OH- (or other
negative) ions in water that can combine with,
and remove, H from solution
9
Organic Molecule Carbohy- drates (sugars) Lipids (Fats) Proteins Nucleic Acids
Composed of what atoms? C, H, O C, H, O C, H, O, N, S C, H, O, N, P
Building Blocks (monomers) Monosaccharides, e.g. hexoses Triglycerides glycerol and 3 fatty acids Phospholipid glycerol, 2 FA, phosphate amino acids nucleotides pentose sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base
Specific types functions of monomers Mono- glucose, fructose, galactose Glucose bodys energy source TG energy Phospholipid cell membrane component Steroid cell membrane component and chemical messenger (i.e. cholesterol) 20 different amino acids each differs from the others because of its unique R group N/A
Specific types and functions of polymers Disaccharides sucrose, lactose, maltose energy _____________ Polysaccharides Starch (plant) Glycogen (animal) energy storage. N/A proteins (gt100 amino acids) Many functions ENZYMES, antibodies, structure, transport, chemical messengers, storage DNA deoxy-ribonucleic acid genetic material RNA ribonucleic acid aids DNA in protein synthesis.
Other Information Saturated (only single bonds between Cs in fa chain) vs. Unsaturated (at least 1 double bond in fa chain) Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds Dipeptide two aa Tripeptide three aa DNA controls cellular activity by instructing our cells what proteins to make (i.e. Enzymes through protein synthesis).
10
Summary of Transport Processes
TRANSPORT PROCESS IS ENERGY NEEDED? CONCEN- TRATION GRADIENT GENERAL DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE IN HUMANS SIGNIFICANCE
SIMPLE DIFFUSION NO HIGH TO LOW spreading out of molecules to equilibrium O2 into cells CO2 out of cells. Cellular Respiration
FACILITATED DIFFUSION NO HIGH TO LOW Using a special cm carrier protein to move something through the cell membrane (cm) Process by which glucose enters cells
OSMOSIS NO HIGH TO LOW water moving through the cm to dilute a solute maintenance of osmotic pressure of 0.9. Same
FILTRATION NO HIGH TO LOW using pressure to push something through a cm (sprinkler hose) manner in which the kidney filters things from blood removal of metabolic wastes
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Summary of Transport Processes
TRANSPORT PROCESS IS ENERGY NEEDED? CONCEN- TRATION GRADIENT GENERAL DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE IN HUMANS SIGNIFICANCE
ACTIVE TRANSPORT YES LOW TO HIGH opposite of diffusion at the expense of energy K-Na-ATPase pump maintenance of the resting membrane potential
ENDOCYTOSIS YES LOW TO HIGH bringing a substance into the cell that is too large to enter by any of the above ways Phagocytosi cell eating Pinocytosis cell drinking. Phagocytosed (foreign) particles fuse with lysosomes to be destroyed help fight infection
EXOCYTOSIS YES LOW TO HIGH expelling a substance from the cell into ECF Exporting proteins dumping waste Same
12
Osmolarity and Tonicity

• Osmolarity of a solution is a measure of a
  solutions attraction for water and depends on
  the number of particles trapped in that
  solution
• Higher the osmolarity, the higher the solute
  concentration
• Higher the osmolarity, more strongly water is
  attracted
• Tonicity is a comparison of the osmolarity
  between two solutions
• Equal osmolarity, no net water movement
• Unequal osmolarity, water will always move into
  the more concentrated solution (from hypotonic to
  hypertonic)

13
Osmotic Pressure/Tonicity
Osmotic Pressure (Osmolarity) ability of solute
to generate enough pressure to move a volume of
water by osmosis
Osmotic pressure increases as the number of
nonpermeable solutes particles increases

• isotonic same osmotic pressure as a second
  solution
• hypertonic higher osmotic pressure
• hypOtonic lower osmotic pressure

0.9 NaCl5.0 Glucose
Crenation
The O in hypotonic
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Passage of Materials through the Cell Membrane
Carrier/channel proteins required for all but
fat-soluble molecules and small uncharged
molecules
oxygen, carbon dioxide and other lipid-soluble
substances diffuse freely through the membrane
15
Cellular Organelles
Table 1 of 2
CELL COMPONENT DESCRIPTION/ STRUCTURE FUNCTION(S)
CELL MEMBRANE Bilayer of phospholipids with proteins dispersed throughout cell boundary selectively permeable (i.e. controls what enters and leaves the cell membrane transport)
CYTOPLASM jelly-like fluid (70 water) suspends organelles in cell
NUCLEUS Central control center of cell bound by lipid bilayer membrane contains chromatin (loosely colied DNA and proteins) controls all cellular activity by directing protein synthesis (i.e. instructing the cell what proteins/enzymes to make.
NUCLEOLUS dense spherical body(ies) within nucleus RNA protein Ribosome synthesis
RIBOSOMES RNA protein dispersed throughout cytoplasm or studded on ER protein synthesis
ROUGH ER Membranous network studded with ribosomes protein synthesis
SMOOTH ER Membranous network lacking ribosomes lipid cholesterol synthesis
GOLGI Stack of Pancakes cisternae modification, transport, and packaging of proteins
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Cellular Organelles
Table 2 of 2
CELL COMPONENT DESCRIPTION/ STRUCTURE FUNCTION(S)
LYSOSOMES Membranous sac of digestive enzymes destruction of worn cell parts (autolysis) and foreign particles
PEROXISOMES Membranous sacs filled with oxidase enzymes (catalase) detoxification of harmful substances (i.e. ethanol, drugs, etc.)
MITOCHONDRIA Kidney shaped organelles whose inner membrane is folded into cristae. Site of Cellular Respiration Powerhouse of Cell
FLAGELLA long, tail-like extension human sperm locomotion
CILIA short, eyelash extensions human trachea fallopian tube to allow for passage of substances through passageways
MICROVILLI microscopic ruffling of cell membrane increase surface area
CENTRIOLES paired cylinders of microtubules at right angles near nucleus aid in chromosome movement during mitosis
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Some Definitions
Chromatin combination of DNA plus histone
proteins used to pack DNA in the cell nucleus
Gene segment of DNA that codes for a protein or
RNA - About 30,000 protein-encoding genes in
humans - DNAs instructions are ultimately
responsible for the ability of the cell to make
ALL its components

• Genome complete set of genes of an organism
• Human Genome Project was complete in 2001
• Genomes of other organisms are important also

Genetic Code method used to translate a
sequence of nucleotides of DNA into a sequence of
amino acids
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Cell Death

• Two mechanisms of cell death
• Necrosis
• Programmed cell death (PCD or apoptosis)
• Necrosis
• Tissue degeneration following suddent,
  unexpected cellular injury or destruction
• Cellular contents released into the environment
  causing an inflammatory response
• Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis)
• Orderly, intentional cell death
• Cellular contents are contained and cell is
  immediately phagocytosed no inflammation

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Transcription/Translation

• Transcription
• generates mRNA from DNA
• Occurs in nucleus of the cell
• Uses ribonucleotides to synthesize mRNA
• Translation
• generates polypeptides (proteins) from mRNA
• Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
• Uses 3 components
• 1. mRNA carries copy of genetic instructions
  from DNA has codons
• 2. tRNA w/aa function as adapters in protein
  synthesis has anticodons
• 3. Ribosomes provide scaffold for protein
  synthesis and has enzymes that link adjacent
  amino acids

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The Genetic Code

1. Codon group of three ribonucleotides found in
   mRNA that specifies an aa
2. Anticodon group of three ribonucleotides found
   in tRNA that allows specific hydrogen bonding
   with mRNA
3. AUG is a start codon and also codes for MET.
   UAA, UAG, and UGA are stop codons that terminate
   the translation of the mRNA strand.

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Find the AMINO ACID SEQUENCE that corresponds to
the following gene region on the DNA Template
-gt G G T C T C A T T Coding -gt C C A G A G T A
A
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Enzymes and Metabolic Reactions
Biological catalysts, i.e., speed up reactions
without being changed in the process.

• control rates of metabolic reactions

• lower activation energy needed to start reactions

• two important factors controlling enzyme
  activity temperature and pH

• not consumed in chemical reactions

• substrate specific

• shape of active site determines which
  substrate(s) the enzyme can act on

Figure From Marieb Hoehn, Human Anatomy
Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
Many times the name of an enzyme ends with suffix
ase
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Cofactors and Coenzymes

• Cofactors
• make some enzymes active
• ions or coenzymes

• Coenzymes
• complex organic molecules that act as cofactors
  (so coenzymes ARE cofactors)
• vitamins
• NAD

Vitamins are essential organic substances that
human cells cannot synthesize, i.e., they must
come from the diet - required in very small
amounts - examples - B vitamins Thiamine
(B1), niacin
The protein parts of enzymes that need a
nonprotein part (coenzymes, cofactors) to work
are called apoenzymes
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ATP An Activated Carrier Molecule

• each ATP molecule has three parts
• an adenine molecule
• a ribose molecule
• three phosphate molecules in a chain

These two components together are called a ?

• ATP carries its energy in the form or P
  (phosphate)
• ATP is a readily interchangeable form of energy
  for cellular reactions (common currency)
  makes it valuable!

Figure From Marieb Hoehn, Human Anatomy
Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
High-energy bonds
Be able to explain or diagram this
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
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Overview of Cellular Respiration
Figure from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
Anaerobic
Cellular respiration (aerobic)
ATP
e-
Most ATP from here
e-
ETS
e-
ATP
e-

• Structural Functional Relationship - Inner
  membrane
• Contains Matrix where TCA cycle takes place
• Has enzymes and molecules that allow Electron
  Transport System to be carried out

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Overview of Glucose Breakdown
NAD
NADH
NAD
NADH
NAD, FAD
NADH FADH2
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
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Anaerobic Glycolysis Lactic Acid
During glycolysis, if O2 is not present in
sufficient quantity, lactic acid is generated to
keep glycolysis going so it continues to generate
ATP (even without mitochondria)
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
NOTE what happens with and without O2 being
available
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Summary Table of Cell Respiration
GLYCOLYSIS TCA ETC

Where it takes place Cytoplasm Mitochondria Mitochondria
Products Produced ATPNADHPyruvate ATPNADH,FADH2CO2 ATPNAD,FADH2O
Purpose Breakdown of glucose (6 carbons) to 2 molecules of pyruvate (3 carbons) Generation of energy intermediates (NADH, FADH2, ATP) and CO2 Generation of ATP and reduction of O2 to H2O (Recall that reduction is the addition of electrons)
What goes on 1. Glucose is converted to pyruvate, which is converted to acetyl CoA when there is sufficient O2 present. 2. Acetyl CoA enters the TCA cycle. 3. If O2 is not present, pyruvate is converted to lactic acid to replenish the supply of NAD so glycolysis can continue to make ATP 1. The energy in acetyl CoA is trapped in activated carriers of electrons (NADH, FADH2) and activated carriers of phosphate groups (ATP). 2. The carries of electrons that trap the energy from acetyl CoA bring their high energy electrons to the electron transport chain. 1. Chemiosmosis (that drives oxidative phosphorylation) uses the electrons donated by NADH and FADH2 to eject H from the matrix of the mitochondria to the intermembrane space. 2. These H then flow down their concentration gradient through a protein (ATP synthase) that makes ATP from ADP and phosphate. 3. During this process, the H that come through the channel in ATP synthase are combined with O2 to make H2O.
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Cell Nucleus

• control center of cell

• nuclear envelope (membrane)
• porous double membrane
• separates nucleoplasm from cytoplasm
  (eukaryotes only)

• nucleolus
• dense collection of RNA and proteins
• site of ribosome production

• chromatin
• fibers of DNA and proteins
• stores information for synthesis of proteins

Figure From Marieb Hoehn, Human Anatomy
Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
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The Cell Cycle

• series of changes a cell undergoes from the time
  it forms until the time it divides
• stages
• interphase (G1, S, G2)
• mitosis
• cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis)

Figure From Marieb Hoehn, Human Anatomy
Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
Differentiated cells may spend all their time in
G0 (neurons, skeletal muscle, red blood cells).
Stem cells may never enter G0
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Mitosis and Meiosis
Figures from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
Mitosis production of two identical diploid
daughter cells Meiosis production of four
genetically varied, haploid gametes
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Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

• Specialized contacts with other cells
• Polarity (different ends of cell do different
  things)
• Avascularity (no blood supply)
• Regeneration (can divide to make new cells)
• Cellularity (lots of cells in close contact)

Remember Epithelial tissues always have a free
surface and a basement membrane
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Membranes
A membrane is a combination of epithelium and
connective tissue that covers and protects other
structures and tissues. Technically, then, a
membrane is an organ.

• Mucous
• line tubes and organs that open to outside world
• lining of mouth, nose, throat, digestive tract,
  etc.
• secrete mucus

• Serous
• line body cavities that lack openings to outside
• reduce friction
• inner lining of thorax and abdomen
• cover organs of thorax and abdomen (pleura,
  pericardium, peritoneum)
• secrete serous fluid

• Synovial
• surround joint cavities

• Cutaneous
• covers body
• skin

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Introduction to Inflammation
Figure from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
HistamineHeparin
Histamine
Restoration of homeostasis after tissue injury or
infections involves two processes 1)
inflammation and 2) repair.
Major signs (hallmarks) of inflammation Redness,
heat, pain, swelling, loss of function (Inflammati
on -itis)
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Glandular Epithelium
Composed of cells that are specialized to produce
and secrete substances
Endocrine glands are ductless secrete directly
into the blood Exocrine glands have ducts
secrete into a duct or on to a surface

• Unicellular exocrine gland
• composed of one cell
• Example goblet cell
• Multicellular exocrine gland
• composed of many cells
• Examples sweat glands, sebaceous glands,
  salivary glands, etc.

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Connective Tissue (CT) Summary TableThree main
components of ALL CT cell, fibers, ground
substance
Name of CT Different types of this CT Main types of cells present Main types of fibers present Consistency of matrix Examples of Locations
CT Proper 1) Areolar (Loose)2) Dense regular3) Dense irregular 4) Adipose 5) Reticular 6) Elastic 1) Fibroblasts2) Fibroblasts3) Fibroblasts 4) Adipocytes 5) Fibroblasts 6) Fibroblasts 1) Collagen, Elastic 2) Collagen 3) Collagen 4) Reticular 5) Reticular 6) Elastic Semi-liquid 1) Skin, between muscles 2) Tendons, ligaments 3) Dermis 4) Body fat areas 5) Stroma of liver, spleen 6) Lungs, airways, arteries/heart
Cartilage 1) Hyaline 2) Fibrocartilage 3) Elastic (All) Chondrocytes 1) Collagen (sparse) 2) Collagen (dense) 3) Elastic All types Semi-solid, gelatinous rubbery 1) Ribs, ends of bones 2) Intervertebral disks 3) Pinna of ear, epiglottis
Bone 1) Dense 2) Spongy (All) Osteocytes Collagen Solid (hydroxyapatite) 1) Outer portions of bone 2) Inner portions of bone
Blood -- 1) RBCs2) WBCs 3) Platelets (cell fragments) Fibrinogen (soluble) Liquid Blood vessels, heart
Lymph -- Lymphocytes Reticular (in stroma of lymphoid organs) Liquid Lymph vessels
-cyte fully differentiated -blast young,
actively synthesizing cell
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Components of Connective Tissue
Table from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
Ground substance - Exists between the fibers and
cells - Varies from semisolid to liquid -
Composed of large molecules, many of which are
complex combinations of polysaccharides and
proteins
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Skin Color/Thermoregulation
Diaphoresis - sweating with visible wetness

• Physiological Factors affecting skin color
• dilation of dermal blood vessels (erythema
  reddening of skin)
• constriction of dermal blood vessels (less pink,
  pale pallor)
• level of oxygenation of blood normal pink
  (fair-skinned) low bluish (cyanosis)

Hyperthermia higher than normal body temp
corrected by dilation of dermal blood vessels,
sweating.
Hypothermia lower than normal body temp
corrected by constriction of dermal blood
vessels, shivering.
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Structures of the Integument
SKIN
Accessory Structures
Epidermis protection Dermis nourishment of
epidermis SubQ insulation
Figure from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
40
Functions of Integument

• The Integumentary System has numerous functions
  that are related to its composition and structure
• Protection
• Temperature regulation (sweat, blood vessels)
• Excretion
• Vitamin D production
• Sensation (touch, pressure)
• The epidermis the outer, protective layer
• S. basale, s. spinosum, s. granulosum, s. lucidum
  (thick skin only), s. corneum

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Dermis and Hypodermis

• The dermis the lower, nutritive layer
• Papillary dermis (areolar CT)
• Reticular dermis (dense irregular CT)
• Dermis contains accessory organs of skin
• The hypodermis (subcutaneous, superficial fascia)
• Insulates (areolar CT with abundant fat)
• Reservoir of blood
• Stabilizes dermis
• NOT part of the skin

42
Hail, Nails, Glands of Integument

• Accessory structures of the integumentary system
• Hair warmth, protection
• Nails defense picking up objects
• Sweat glands
• Apocrine (merocrine) - odoriferous
• Eccrine (merocrine) - thermoregulation
• Modified (mammary, ceruminous)
• Sebaceous glands
• Secrete sebum (waxy, fatty substance)
• Lubricate/protect hair and skin
• Sebum is antibacterial

43
Compact and Spongy Bone
Each bone in the skeleton contains two forms of
osseous tissue - Compact bone (cortical) solid
(with osteons as structural units) found on
outer parts of bone - Spongy (cancellous,
trabecular) bone network of struts and plates
(trabeculae) found within the inner parts of bone
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
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Epiphyseal Plates
Epiphyseal cartilage epiphyseal plate allows
long bones to grow in length
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Homeostasis of Bone Tissue
Bone remodeling is a process that continues
throughout life, and is accomplished by two
processes
1) Bone Resorption action of osteoclasts and
parathyroid hormone (PTH) 2) Bone Deposition
action of osteoblasts and calcitonin

• FACTORS AFFECTING REMODELING, GROWTH AND REPAIR
  OF BONE
• Mineral salts, especially Calcium and Phosphorus
• Deficiencies of vitamins A, C, and D
• Deficiency of Vitamin A retards bone
  development
• Deficiency of Vitamin C results in fragile
  (brittle) bones
• Deficiency of Vitamin D rickets, osteomalacia
• Growth factors and Hormones
• Sex Hormones promote bone formation stimulate
  ossification (closure) of epiphyseal plates
• Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) stim. by
  hGH
• Insufficient Growth Hormone pituitary dwarfism
• Excessive Growth Hormone gigantism, acromegaly
  
• Insufficient Thyroid Hormone delays bone
  growth
• Physical Stress (exercise) stimulates bone
  growth

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Axial Skeleton - Thoracic Cage

• True 7 pairs
• False 3 pairs
• Floating 2 pairs

47
Synovial Joints
Diarthrotic (freely movable)
Structural features of diarthrotic joints -
joint cavity - articular cartilage - synovial
membrane - synovial fluid - reinforcing
ligaments, bursae and tendons
Synovial fluid Lubricates, distributes
nutrients, and absorbs shock
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Divisions of the Pelvis
(Greater)
(Lesser)
Pelvic brim (sacral promontory, sacral ala,
arcuate line, pectineal line, pubic crest) x 2
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Joint Classification
Structural Classification of Joints
Fibrous
Synovial (D)
Cartilaginous
Suture (S)
Synchondrosis (S)
Gliding (N)
Syndesmosis (A)
Symphysis (A)
Hinge (M)
Pivot (M)
Gomphosis (S)
Condyloid (B)
Saddle (B)
Ball/Socket (P)
This would be a really good chart to know for the
exam!
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Synovial Joint Movements Summary

• Flexion decrease in angle between bones
• Extension increase in angle between bones
• ABduction movement away from midline
• ADduction movement toward midline
• Circumduction Movement of the distal end of a
  limb in a circle
• Supination palm facing anteriorly
• Pronation palm facing posteriorly
• Protraction anterior movement in transverse
  plane
• Retraction posterior movement in transverse
  plane
• Dorsiflexion Superior surface of foot moves
  superiorly
• Plantar flexion Inferior surface of foot moves
  inferiorly

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Know Actions of These Muscles
Muscle Name Location Action
Masseter Cheek in front of ear Elevates mandible (raises lower jaw)
Trapezius Upper shoulder Elevates clavicle Extends neck
Sternocleidomastoid Side of neck Rotates head Flexes head toward shoulder
Deltoid Shoulder Abduction at shoulder
Biceps brachii Front of upper arm Flexion at elbow and shoulder
Triceps brachii Back of upper arm Extension at elbow
Abdominal muscles External oblique Internal oblique Rectus abdominis Front and side of abdomen Flex trunk (vertebral column) depress ribs (as in forced exhalation)
Pectoralis major Front of upper chest Flexion, adduction, and medial rotation of shoulder
Latissimus dorsi Upper back Extension, adduction, and rotation of shoulder
Orbicularis Oris Around mouth Compresses, purses lips
Orbicularis Oculi Around eye Closes eye
Temporalis Side of head (skull) Elevates mandible
Gluteus maximus Buttocks Extension and lateral rotation at hip
Hamstring group Biceps femoris Semitendinosus Semimembranosus Back of thigh Lateral part of thigh Medial part of thigh Medial part of thigh Flexes knee/extend thigh (all muscles in group)
Quadriceps group Rectus femoris Vastus lateralis Vastus medials Vastus intermedius Front of thigh Middle Lateral Medial Deep Extends knee (all muscles in group)
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Organization of Skeletal Muscle
Gross Muscle (and fascia/epimysium), fascicle
(and perimysium) Histological Fiber (cell),
endomysium Molecular Myofibrils, sarcomere
structure, actin/myosin arrangement

• epimysium (around muscle)
• perimysium (around fascicles)
• endomysium (around fibers, or cells)

Alphabetical order largest to smallest fascicle,
fiber, fibril, and filament
54
Skeletal Muscle Fiber (Cell)
Fully differentiated, specialized cell its
structures are given special names

• sarcolemma (plasma membrane)
• sarcoplasm (cytoplasm)
• sarcoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• transverse tubule
• triad
• cisternae of sarcoplasmic reticulum (2)
• transverse tubule
• myofibril (1-2 µm diam.)

Figure from Saladin, Anatomy Physiology,
McGraw Hill, 2007
Transverse tubules contain extracellular fluid (?
Na, ? K) Sarcoplasmic reticulum is like the
ER of other cells but it contains ? Ca2
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Structure of the Sarcomere
A in A band stands for Anisotropic (dArk) I
in I band stands for Isotropic (LIght)
Zones of non-overlap I band (thin filaments),
and H zone (thick filaments) A sarcomere runs
from Z line (disk) to Z line (disk)
Figure from Saladin, Anatomy Physiology,
McGraw Hill, 2007
56
Summary of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
- Bind (Ca, myosin) - Move - Detach - Reset
Contraction
Relaxation
Latent period time between motor nerve
stimulation and contraction of skeletal muscle
57
Modes of ATP Synthesis During Exercise
Muscle stores enough ATP for about 4-6 seconds
worth of contraction, but is the only energy
source used directly by muscle. So, how is
energy provided for prolonged contraction?
Continual shift from one energy source to another
rather than an abrupt change
Figures From Marieb Hoehn, Human Anatomy
Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson, 2013
58
Types of Contractions

• concentric shortening contraction

• isotonic muscle contracts and changes length

• eccentric lengthening contraction

• isometric muscle contracts but does not
  change length

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Motor Unit and Muscle Tone

• Motor unit - single motor neuron plus all muscle
  fibers controlled by that motor neuron

• whole muscle composed of many motor units

• recruitment - increase in the number of motor
  units activated to perform a task

• as intensity of stimulation increases,
  recruitment of motor units continues until all
  motor units are activated

• smaller motor units recruited first
• larger motor units recruited later
• produces smooth movements
• muscle tone continuous state of partial
  contraction

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Skeletal Muscle Actions

• origin immovable end
• insertion movable end

• agonist (prime mover ) primarily responsible
  for movement
• synergists assist prime mover
• antagonist resist prime movers action and
  cause movement in the opposite direction

Figure from Saladin, Anatomy Physiology,
McGraw Hill, 2007
Understand these terms