APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

• KIP/ASVT
• 2009/10

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Accelerating Growth
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Double exponential growth

• There's exponential growth even in the rate of
  exponential growth. Computer speed (per unit
  cost) doubled every three years between 1910 and
  1950, doubled every two years between 1950 and
  1966, and is now doubling every year
• It took ninety years to achieve the first MIPS
  (million instructions per second) per thousand
  dollars, now we add one MIPS per thousand dollars
  every day.

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• Every point on the exponential growth curves
  represents an intense human drama of innovation
  and competition. It is remarkable that these
  chaotic processes result in such smooth and
  predictable exponential trends.
• For example, when the human genome scan started,
  critics pointed out that given the speed with
  which the genome could then be scanned, it would
  take thousands of years to finish the project.
  Yet the fifteen year project was nonetheless
  completed slightly ahead of schedule.

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Communications

• Exponential growth in communications technology
  has been even more explosive than in computation
  and is no less significant in its implications.
• Again, this progression involves far more than
  just shrinking transistors on an integrated
  circuit, but includes accelerating advances in
  fiber optics, optical switching, electromagnetic
  technologies, and others.

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Internet

• The following two charts show the overall growth
  of the Internet based on the number of hosts

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Wireless communication

• the power is doubling every 10 to 11 months.

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• 1973 - Network Voice Protocol introduced
• 1980 - Internet Protocol came into existence
• 1989 - ISDN/Integrated Services Digital Network
  came into existence
• 1991 - The first GSM network was launched in 1991
  by Radiolinja in Finland.
• 1995 - First VoIP connection
• 2001 - Vonage founded
• 2002 - Skype founded
• December 2006 - Over 8 million concurrent users
  on Skype
• 2006 - 7 of all international US voice traffic
  was sent through Skype

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Economy

• Virtually all of the economic models taught in
  economics classes are fundamentally flawed
  because they are based on the intuitive linear
  view of history rather than the historically
  based exponential view.
• The reason that these linear models appear to
  work for a while is for the same reason that most
  people adopt the intuitive linear view in the
  first place exponential trends appear to be
  linear when viewed (and experienced) for a brief
  period of time, particularly in the early stages
  of an exponential trend when not much is
  happening.
• But once the "knee of the curve" is achieved and
  the exponential growth explodes, the linear
  models break down.
• The economy (viewed either in total or per
  capita) has been growing exponentially throughout
  this century

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Software Price-Performance

• has Also Improved at an Exponential Rate
• Example Automatic Speech Recognition Software

1985 1995 2000
Price 5 000 500 50
Vocabulary Size ( words) 1000 10 000 100 000
Continuous Speech? No No Yes
User Training Required (Minutes) 180 60 5
Accuracy Poor Fair Good
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Diminishing returns - 1

• Diminishing returns (also diminishing marginal
  returns, the law of diminishing returns, law of
  increasing relative cost, or law of increasing
  opportunity cost) in a production system with
  fixed and variable inputs (say factory size and
  labor), beyond some point, each additional unit
  of variable input yields less and less additional
  output. Conversely, producing one more unit of
  output costs more and more in variable inputs.
• Although ostensibly a purely economic concept,
  diminishing marginal returns also implies a
  technological relationship. Diminishing marginal
  returns states that a firm's short run marginal
  cost curve will eventually increase. It is
  possibly among the best-known economic "laws."

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Diminishing returns - 2

• Suppose that one kilogram (kg) of seed applied to
  a plot of land of a fixed size produces one ton
  of harvestable crop. You might expect that an
  additional kilogram of seed would produce an
  additional ton of output. However, if there are
  diminishing marginal returns, that additional
  kilogram will produce less than one additional
  ton of harvestable crop (on the same land, during
  the same growing season, and with nothing else
  but the amount of seeds planted changing). For
  example, the second kilogram of seed may only
  produce a half ton of extra output. Diminishing
  marginal returns also implies that a third
  kilogram of seed will produce an additional crop
  that is even less than a half ton of additional
  output. Assume that it is one quarter of a ton.

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Diminishing returns - 3

• A consequence of diminishing marginal returns is
  that as total investment increases, the total
  return on investment as a proportion of the total
  investment (the average product or return) also
  decreases. The return from investing the first
  kilogram is 1 t/kg. The total return when 2 kg of
  seed are invested is 1.5/2 0.75 t/kg, while the
  total return when 3 kg are invested is 1.75/3
  0.58 t/kg.

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Resources

• Ray Kurzweil The Law of Accelerating Returns,
  http//www.kurzweilai.net/meme/frame.html?main/ar
  ticles/art0134.html
• http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerating_change
  

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iPod-iTunes-iPhone
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iPod
iPod shuffle iPod nano iPod classic iPod touch
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iPod

• launched in October 2001
• over 110 million units worldwide, as of September
  2007
• iPod can play a variety of audio file formats
• The iPod photo introduced the ability to display
  numerous image file formats.

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• Each time an iPod connects to its host computer,
  iTunes can synchronize entire music libraries or
  music playlists either automatically or manually.
  Song ratings can be set on the iPod and
  synchronized later to the iTunes library, and
  vice versa

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iPod timeline
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iPod sales
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• Jan 2007 Apple reported record quarterly
  earnings of US7.1 billion, of which 48 was made
  from iPod sales.
• On Apr 9, 2007, it was announced that Apple had
  sold its one-hundred millionth iPod, making it
  the biggest selling digital music player of all
  time.
• In April 2007, Apple reported second quarter
  earnings of US5.2 billion, of which 32 was made
  from iPod sales.
• Apple and several industry analysts suggest that
  iPod users are likely to purchase other Apple
  products such as Mac computers.
• On Sep 5, 2007, Apple announced that the iPod had
  surpassed 110 million units sold.

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iTunes

• playing and organizing digital music and video
  files
• available as a free download
• users are able to organize their music into
  playlists within one or more libraries, edit file
  information, record CD, copy files, purchase
  music and videos through its built-in music
  store, download podcasts, back up songs onto a CD
  or DVD, encode music into a number of different
  audio formats.
• 2005 support for purchasing and viewing of video
  content from the iTunes Music Store

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iTunes Store

• opening Apr 2008, 2003
• Jul 31, 2007 over 3 billion downloads since
  iTunes was first introduced - more than 80 of
  worldwide online digital music sales

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Prices

• DRM versions of songs cost 0.99
• DRM-free versions of certain songs are
  additionally available for US1.29
• European prices oscillate around 0.99
• Television episodes 1.99
• Feature-length movies 9.99 for older movies,
  12.99 for new movies
• games 4.99 each

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Contents

• more than 6,000,000 songs
• over 20,000 audiobooks
• Apr 11, 2007 over 500 movies

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DRM

• Apple's FairPlay digital rights management (DRM)
  is integrated into iTunes, which manages songs
  purchased from iTunes Store. iTunes relies on
  FairPlay to implement two main restrictions
• Users can make a maximum of seven CD copies of
  any particular playlist containing songs
  purchased from the iTunes Store.
• Users can access their purchased songs on a
  maximum of five computers.
• There are no restrictions on number of iPods to
  which a purchased song can be transferred nor the
  number of times any individual song can be burned
  to CD.

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iPhone

• introduced Jun 29, 2007 in the US, current price
  is 399 for an 8 GB model
• Nov 9, 2007
• UK O2 on the carrier
• Germany T-Mobile
• Czech Republic T-mobile
• iPhone users must use iTunes to select and
  purchase a contract tariff before the phone
  features may be used

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Technology

• the iPhone is manufactured on contract in the
  Shenzhen factory of the Taiwanese company Hon Hai
  
• Storage 8 GB flash memory
• Quad band GSM
• Wi-Fi, EDGE and Bluetooth 2.0
• 2 megapixel camera
• more than 300 patents related to the technology
  behind the iPhone

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Apple - Mission Statement

• Apple ignited the personal computer revolution in
  the 1970s with the Apple II and reinvented the
  personal computer in the 1980s with the
  Macintosh.
• Today, Apple continues to lead the industry in
  innovation with its award-winning computers, OS X
  operating system and iLife and professional
  applications.
• Apple is also spearheading the digital media
  revolution with its iPod portable music and video
  players and iTunes online store, and has entered
  the mobile phone market this year with its
  revolutionary iPhone

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Slogans

• Byte into an Apple
• iThink, therefore iMac

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Nanotechnology
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• technology whose unifying theme is the control of
  matter on the atomic and molecular level in
  scales from 1 to 100 nanometers (10-9 m), and the
  fabrication of devices within that size range
• bottom-up" approach materials and devices are
  built from molecular components which assemble
  themselves chemically by principles of molecular
  recognition
• "top-down" approach nano-objects are constructed
  from larger entities without atomic-level control
  

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Links
How can you explain what is meant by
nanotechnology? Nanotechnology Innovation for
tomorrows world
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Applications
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nanotechnolog
y_applications
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Potential hazards

• Potential for some nanomaterials to be toxic to
  humans or the environment
• The smaller a particle, the greater its surface
  area to volume ratio and the higher its chemical
  reactivity and biological activity ? increased
  production of reactive oxygen species (ROS),
  including free radicals
• ROS and free radical production is one of the
  primary mechanisms of nanoparticle toxicity it
  may result in oxidative stress, inflammation, and
  consequent damage to proteins, membranes and DNA

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Nano optimists

• providing universal clean water supplies
• greater agricultural productivity with less
  labour requirements, nutritionally enhanced
  interactive smart foods
• cheap and powerful energy generation
• clean and highly efficient manufacturing
• radically improved formulation of drugs,
  diagnostics and organ replacement
• much greater information storage and
  communication capacities
• interactive smart appliances and increased
  human performance through convergent technologies

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Nano skeptics

• nanotechnology will simply exacerbate problems
  stemming from existing socio-economic inequity
  and unequal distributions of power, creating
  greater inequities between rich and poor through
  an inevitable nano-divide (the gap between those
  who control the new nanotechnologies and those
  whose products, services or labour are displaced
  by them)
• nanotechnology has the potential to destabilise
  international relations through a nano arms race
  and the increased potential for bioweaponry
• might break down the barriers between life and
  non-life through nanobiotechnology, redefining
  even what it means to be human

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CryptographyDigital signatures
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Benefits of digital signatures

• Authentication When ownership of a digital
  signature secret key is bound to a specific user,
  a valid signature shows that the message was sent
  by that user. The importance of high confidence
  in sender authenticity is especially obvious in a
  financial context. For example, suppose a bank's
  branch office sends instructions to the central
  office requesting a change in the balance of an
  account. If the central office is not convinced
  that such a message is truly sent from an
  authorized source, acting on such a request could
  be a grave mistake.

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Benefits of digital signatures

• Integrity confidence that the message has not
  been altered during transmission. Although
  encryption hides the contents of a message, it
  may be possible to change an encrypted message
  without understanding it. However, if a message
  is digitally signed, any change in the message
  will invalidate the signature.

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Create keys
A big random number is used to make a
public-key/private-key pair.
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Encrypt decrypt
Anyone can encrypt using the public key, but only
the holder of the private key can decrypt.
Secrecy depends on the secrecy of the private key
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Sign
Using a private key to encrypt (thus signing) a
message anyone can check the signature using the
public key. Validity depends on private key
security
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Share symmetric key
By combining your own private key with the other
user's public key, you can calculate a shared
secret that only the two of you know. The shared
secret can be used as the key for a symmetric
cipher.
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• Public key encryption a message encrypted with
  a recipient's public key cannot be decrypted by
  anyone except the recipient possessing the
  corresponding private key. This is used to ensure
  confidentiality.
• Digital signatures a message signed with a
  sender's private key can be verified by anyone
  who has access to the sender's public key,
  thereby proving that the sender signed it and
  that the message has not been tampered with. This
  is used to ensure authenticity.

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• An analogy for public-key encryption is that of a
  locked mailbox with a mail slot. The mail slot is
  exposed and accessible to the public its
  location (the street address) is in essence the
  public key. Anyone knowing the street address can
  go to the door and drop a written message through
  the slot however, only the person who possesses
  the key can open the mailbox and read the
  message.
• An analogy for digital signatures is the sealing
  of an envelope with a personal wax seal. The
  message can be opened by anyone, but the presence
  of the seal authenticates the sender.

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• For encryption, the sender encrypts the message
  with a secret-key algorithm using a randomly
  generated key, and that random key is then
  encrypted with the recipient's public key.
• For digital signatures, the sender hashes the
  message (using a cryptographic hash function) and
  then signs the resulting "hash value".
• Before verifying the signature, the recipient
  also computes the hash of the message, and
  compares this hash value with the signed hash
  value to check that the message has not been
  tampered with.

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A postal analogy

• An analogy which can be used to understand the
  advantages of an asymmetric system is to imagine
  two people, Alice and Bob, sending a secret
  message through the public mail. In this example,
  Alice wants to send a secret message to Bob, and
  expects a secret reply from Bob.
• With a symmetric key system, Alice first puts the
  secret message in a box, and locks the box using
  a padlock to which she has a key. She then sends
  the box to Bob through regular mail. When Bob
  receives the box, he uses an identical copy of
  Alice's key (which he has somehow obtained
  previously, maybe by a face-to-face meeting) to
  open the box, and reads the message. Bob can then
  use the same padlock to send his secret reply.

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• In an asymmetric key system, Bob and Alice have
  separate padlocks. First, Alice asks Bob to send
  his open padlock to her through regular mail,
  keeping his key to himself. When Alice receives
  it she uses it to lock a box containing her
  message, and sends the locked box to Bob. Bob can
  then unlock the box with his key and read the
  message from Alice. To reply, Bob must similarly
  get Alice's open padlock to lock the box before
  sending it back to her.

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• The critical advantage in an asymmetric key
  system is that Bob and Alice never need to send a
  copy of their keys to each other. This prevents a
  third party (perhaps, in the example, a corrupt
  postal worker) from copying a key while it is in
  transit, allowing to spy on all future messages
  sent between Alice and Bob. So in the public key
  scenario, Alice and Bob need not trust the postal
  service as much. In addition, if Bob were
  careless and allowed someone else to copy his
  key, Alice's messages to Bob would be
  compromised, but Alice's messages to other people
  would remain secret, since the other people would
  be providing different padlocks for Alice to use.

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• all public key / private key cryptosystems depend
  entirely on keeping the private key secret
• store the private key on a smart card

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Brute force attack

• all public-key schemes are susceptible to brute
  force key search attack
• protection choosing key sizes large enough that
  the best known attack would take so long that it
  is not worth any adversary's time and money to
  break the code
• 128 bits is the suggested key length for
  symmetric codes
• 3072 bits is the suggested key length for systems
  based on factoring
• no efficient integer factorization algorithm is
  publicly known a recent effort which factored a
  200 digit number took eighteen months and used
  over half a century of computer time.

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Man in the middle attack

• man in the middle attack, in which communication
  of public keys is intercepted by a third party
  and modified to provide different public keys
  instead
• certificate authority, a trusted third party who
  is responsible for verifying the identity of a
  user of the system and issuing a digital
  certificate, which is a signed block of data
  stating that this public key belongs to that
  person, company or other entity

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Biotechnology
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• Biotechnology has contributed towards the
  exploitation of biological organisms or
  biological processes through modern techniques,
  which could be profitably used in medicine,
  agriculture, animal husbandry and environmental
  cloning.

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
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Disciplines

• genetics
• molecular biology
• biochemistry
• embryology
• cell biology

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• the most practical uses cultivation of plants to
  produce food suitable to humans, animal breeding
• directed use of organisms for the manufacture of
  organic products (beer and milk products),
• early twentieth century manufacturing specific
  products
• 1917 corn starch
• bacterium capable of breaking down crude oil
• pharmacy
• genetic testing
• bioinformatics rapid organization and analysis
  of biological data

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Pharmaceutical products

• genetically altered microorganisms for the
  production of substances like insulin or
  antibiotics
• development of plant-made pharmaceuticals
• manufacture existing drugs more easily and
  cheaply

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Genetic testing

• Can be used to
• Diagnose a disease.
• Confirm a diagnosis.
• Provide prognostic information about the course
  of a disease.
• Confirm the existence of a disease in
  individuals.
• With varying degrees of accuracy, predict the
  risk of future disease

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Genetic testing current use

• Determining sex
• Carrier screening, or the identification of
  unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a
  gene for a disease that requires two copies for
  the disease to manifest
• Prenatal diagnostic screening
• Newborn screening
• Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset
  disorders
• Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of
  developing adult-onset cancers
• Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic
  individuals
• Forensic/identity testing

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Gene therapy

• treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired
  diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal
  genes to supplement or replace defective genes or
  to bolster a normal function such as immunity
• somatic gene therapy the genome of the recipient
  is changed, but this change is not passed along
  to the next generation
• germline gene therapy the egg and sperm cells of
  the parents are changed for the purpose of
  passing on the changes to their offspring.
• June 2001 more than 500 clinical gene-therapy
  trials involving about 3,500 patients, around 78
  in the U.S., 18 in Europe

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Cloning

• Reproductive cloning
• Therapeutic cloning
• 1997 Dolly

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Ethical issues

• ethic reviews in research project proposals
• EU Framework Programme 7 does not allow funding
  of research activities
• aiming at human cloning for reproductive purposes
• intended to modify the genetic heritage of human
  beings
• intended to create human embryos solely for the
  purpose of research or stem cell procurement

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Technology to Market Mobile phone
V.Trommsdorff TU Berlin
Hygiene factors
Design
Weight
Sound quality
Stand-by-Zeit
Usability
Gesprächszeit
Antenne
Funkce
Purchase
Prestige
WAP-tauglich
Displej
Infraport
Readiness
Art des Akkus
Charging timet
User-friendly menu
Market factors
Goal
Technology factors
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Medical Applications

• CT Computer Tomography - http//en.wikipedia.org/w
  iki/Computer_tomography
• NMR - Magnetic_resonance_imaging -
  http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_im
  aging
• PET - Positron_emission_tomography -
  http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tom
  ography
• Lithotripsy - http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithotr
  ipsy
• Medical ultrasonography - http//en.wikipedia.org/
  wiki/Ultrasound_imaging

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CT - Computed Tomography
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Tomography

• medical imaging method employing tomography
  created by computer processing.
• tomos (slice) and graphein (to write)
• principle - early 1900s

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Digital processing

• Digital geometry processing is used to generate a
  three-dimensional image of the inside of an
  object from a large series of two-dimensional
  X-ray images taken around a single axis of
  rotation.
• CT produces a volume of data which can be
  processed in order to demonstrate various bodily
  structures based on their ability to block the
  X-ray/Röntgen beam.

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• The first commercially viable CT scanner was
  invented by Sir Godfrey at EMI Central Research
  Laboratories. Hounsfield conceived his idea in
  1967, and it was publicly announced in 1972.
• Allan McLeod Cormack of Tufts University in
  Massachusetts independently invented a similar
  process
• Both Hounsfield and Cormack shared the 1979 Nobel
  Prize in Medicine.

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• The original 1971 prototype took 160 parallel
  readings through 180 angles, each 1 apart, with
  each scan taking a little over five minutes. The
  images from these scans took 2.5 hours to be
  processed
• Thanks to the success of The Beatles, EMI could
  fund research and build early models for medical
  use.

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Advantages

• completely eliminates the superimposition of
  images of structures outside the area of interest
• because of the inherent high-contrast resolution
  of CT, differences between tissues that differ in
  physical density by less than 1 can be
  distinguished. Finally, data from a single CT
  imaging procedure can be viewed in different
  planes, depending on the diagnostic task.

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Risks

• The radiation dose for a particular study depends
  on multiple factors volume scanned, patient
  build, number and type of scan sequences, and
  desired resolution and image quality
• Increased CT usage has led to an overall rise in
  the total amount of medical radiation used,
  despite reductions in other areas

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Typical scan doses
Examination Typical effective dose (mSv)
Chest X-ray 0.1
Head CT 1.5
Screening mammography 3
Abdomen CT 5.3
Chest CT 5.8
Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis CT 9.9
CT colonography (virtual colonoscopy) 3.6 - 8.8
Cardiac CT angiogram 6.7-13
Barium enema 15
Neonatal abdominal CT 20
the average background exposure is 1-3 mSv per
annum
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NMR Magnetic resonance imaging

• Any nucleus that contains an odd number of
  protons and/or of neutrons has an intrinsic
  magnetic moment
• The nucleus absorbs energy from the
  electromagnetic (EM) pulse and radiate this
  energy back out at a specific resonance frequency
  This allows the observation of specific quantum
  mechanical magnetic properties of an atomic
  nucleus

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NMR physical basics

• Nuclear magnetic resonance was first described
  and measured in molecular beams by Isidor Rabi in
  1938.
• Eight years later, in 1946, Felix Bloch and
  Edward Mills Purcell refined the technique for
  use on liquids and solids
• Nobel Prize in physics in 1952

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Advantages

• MRI provides much greater contrast between the
  different soft tissues of the body than CT does,
  making it especially useful in neurological,
  musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological
  imaging.
• Unlike CT, it uses no ionizing radiation, but
  uses a powerful magnetic field to align the
  nuclear magnetization of hydrogen atoms in water
  in the body

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History

• relatively new technology.
• first MR image published in 1973
• first cross-sectional image of a living mouse
  published in January 1974.
• first studies performed on humans published in
  1977.
• By comparison, the first human X-ray image was
  taken in 1895.

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Economics of MRI

• MRI equipment is expensive. 1.5 tesla scanners
  often cost between 1 million and 1.5 million
  USD. 3.0 tesla scanners often cost between 2
  million and 2.3 million USD. Construction of MRI
  suites can cost up to 500,000 USD, or more,
  depending on project scope.

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Potential risks

• Pacemakers are generally considered an absolute
  contraindication towards MRI
• Medical or biostimulation implants
• Ferromagnetic foreign bodies (e.g. shell
  fragments), or metallic implants
• people with even mild claustrophobia are
  sometimes unable to tolerate an MRI scan without
  management

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• Paul Lauterbur (University of Illinois at
  Urbana-Champaign) and Sir Peter Mansfield
  (University of Nottingham) were awarded the 2003
  Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their
  "discoveries concerning magnetic resonance
  imaging".

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PET Positron emission tomography

• The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted
  indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide
  (tracer), which is introduced into the body on a
  biologically active molecule.
• Images of tracer concentration in 3-dimensional
  space within the body are then reconstructed by
  computer analysis.

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Combined scans

• In modern scanners, PET is often combined with CT
  or NMR scan performed on the patient during the
  same session, in the same machine.
• As a result, the physician gets both anatomic and
  metabolic information (i.e., what the structure
  is, and what it is doing biochemically).

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Risks

• PET scanning is non-invasive, but it does involve
  exposure to ionizing radiation. The total dose of
  radiation is small, however, usually around 11 mSv

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Lithotripsy

• non-invasive treatment of kidney stones and
  (stones in the gallbladder or in the liver).
• Lithotripsy and the lithotriptor were developed
  in the early 1980s in Germany by Dornier
  Medizintechnik GmbH (now known as Dornier MedTech
  Systems GmbH)
• came into widespread use with the introduction
  of the HM-3 lithotriptor in 1983

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• The lithotriptor attempts to break up the stone
  with minimal collateral damage by using an
  externally-applied, focused, high-intensity
  acoustic pulse
• The successive shock wave pressure pulses result
  in direct shearing forces, as well as cavitations
  bubbles surrounding the stone, which fragment the
  stones into smaller pieces that then can easily
  pass through the ureters or the cystic duct.
• The process takes about an hour.

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Origins

• Dornier's early findings laid the cornerstone for
  the evolution of metal aircraft.
• During research performed in the Dornier
  aerospace technology division, a previously
  unexplained phenomenon was discovered. Pitting
  was occurring on the surface of an aircraft as it
  approached the sound barrier - a unique
  phenomenon found to be caused by the shock wave
  created in front of a droplet of moisture.
• This finding, followed by the close collaboration
  between hospitals and Dornier's development
  laboratories, resulted in the invention of
  extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy

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Medical ultrasonography

• Diagnostic sonography (ultrasonography) is an
  ultrasound-based diagnostic imaging technique
  used to visualize subcutaneous body structures
  including tendons, muscles, joints, vessels and
  internal organs for possible pathology or
  lesions.
• Obstetric sonography is commonly used during
  pregnancy and is widely recognized by the public.
  There is a plethora of diagnostic and therapeutic
  applications practiced in medicine.
• In physics the term "ultrasound" applies to all
  acoustic energy with a frequency above human
  hearing (20 kHz).

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• Ultrasonic energy was first applied to the human
  body for medical purposes by Dr. George Ludwig at
  the Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda,
  Maryland in the late 1940s.

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Therapeutic applications

• Therapeutic applications use ultrasound to bring
  heat or agitation into the body. Much higher
  energies are used than in diagnostics
• Ultrasound may be used to clean teeth in dental
  hygiene.
• Ultrasound sources may be used to generate
  regional heating and mechanical changes in
  biological tissue.
• Focused ultrasound may be used to generate highly
  localized heating to treat cysts and tumors
  (benign or malignant), treatment is often guided
  by MRI.
• Focused ultrasound may be used to break up kidney
  stones by lithotripsy.

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Risks and side-effects

• Ultrasonography is generally considered a "safe"
  imaging modality. However slight detrimental
  effects have been occasionally observed (see
  below). Diagnostic ultrasound studies of the
  fetus are generally considered to be safe during
  pregnancy. This diagnostic procedure should be
  performed only when there is a valid medical
  indication, and the lowest possible ultrasonic
  exposure setting should be used to gain the
  necessary diagnostic information under the "as
  low as reasonably achievable" or ALARA principle.

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ALARA
As Low As Reasonably Achievable Also ALARP As
Low As Reasonably Practicable
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Providers

• Siemens Healthcare 49,000 employees, sales USD
  17.2 billion
• GE Healthcare 46,000 employees, sales USD16.997
  billion
• Philips - 33,000 employees
• Toshiba, Carestream Health, SAP Healthcare