Propaganda and Persuasion / Media Effects (chapter 4)

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Propaganda and Persuasion /Media Effects
(chapter 4)
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An Evaluation / AnalysisWhat works and what
doesnt
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The beginning of psychological and sociological
studies

• 1918 Thomas and Znaniecki
• The foundation of modern empirical sociology
• Social psychology as a study of attitudes

• .

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The study of attitudes

• Gordon Allport (1935)
• Attitudes, in A Handbook of Social Psychology
• The Likert Scale measurement of attitudes
• (5-point scale from strongly approve to
  strongly disapprove)
• Also The semantic differential scale
• The shades of meaning of a concept, from
  good to bad, black to white, love to
  non-love (usually 7-point differential with 4
  neutral)

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Attitude-Behavior Relations

• Richard Lapiere study of 1934
• Low connection between reported attitudes and
  actual behavior

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Attitude-Behavior RelationsIcek Ajzen Martin
Fishbein Psychological Bulletin, 84,5. 1977

• A review of available empirical research supports
  the contention that strong attitude-behavior
  relations are obtained only under high
  correspondence between at least the target and
  action elements of the attitudinal and behavioral
  entities.

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Studies in Public Opinion

• Walter Lippmanns Public Opinion (1922)
• Free file at the Gutenberg Project HERE

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Hypodermic Effect (1900-1930s)

• The press is a powerful force in shaping public
  opinion.
• Messages were conceived as being injected into
  the mind where they changed feelings and
  attitudes.

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Limited Effects or the Social Influence Model
(1940s to 1960s)

• The period of strong advances in the
  psychological studies. In this period the
  foundations of the media effect were established.
  
• Surprisingly, the general conclusion was that the
  media dont have as strong effect as it was
  thought before.

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Lazarsfeld et al (1948)Erie County Study in 1940.

• Hypotheses The Media
• 1. could arouse public interest in the campaign
  and encourage voters to seek out more information
  about the candidates and issues.
• 2. could reinforce existing political beliefs
  (make them stronger and more resistant to change)
• 3. would convert attitudes and change voters
  support from one to another candidate.

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Lazarsfel et al. (1948)Erie County Study in
1940.

• Findings
• 1. YES. People who read or listened to a
  substantial amount of campaign media coverage
  were more likely to become more interested in the
  election.
• 2. YES, BUT... Their interest and activation
  were selective in that they tended to seek out
  stories that were consistent with prior political
  attitudes.
• 3. NO. Those relative few who did change their
  minds did so not because of attending to the
  media directly but by filtering of information to
  them from people in the community (so-called
  opinion leaders)

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Erie County Study in 1940.Important Conclusions

• The media dont have a direct impact, but are
  filtered by the community, by the opinion leaders
  
• Two-step flow of communication.
• Multi-step flow This revision included the
  flow of information from the media to multiple
  opinion leaders and between them. Further, it
  included also the concept of gatekeepers. The
  leaders were not just simple conveyor belts but
  also decided which information will pass through.

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The Yale Studies

• The effects of source credibility on information
  processing (diminishing effectiveness of
  credibility, the sleeper effect)
• The ordering of arguments (primacy-recency)
• Explicit versus implicit conclusions
• The fear appeal Effective appeal must include
  fear but also an option for eliminating fear

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Other theories

• Consistency theories / Cognitive dissonance
• Theory of Exposure Learning (comfort in
  familiarity the more exposure, the more
  persuasion and liking)

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Other approaches

• Diffusion of Innovation
• Agenda Setting Hypothesis

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Diffusion of Innovation a process of filtering
information through the media, interpersonal
communication, and culture

• Five steps
• Knowledge learning about an innovation,
• Persuasion forming an attitude toward the
  innovation,
• Decision a decision to adopt or reject,
• Implementation implementation of the new idea,
• Confirmation confirmation of this decision.

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Diffusion of Innovation
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Diffusion of Innovation
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Diffusion of Innovation

• Factors influencing the process
• 1. Personality, social characteristics, and
  individual needs.
• 2. Social / cultural system
• 3. Characteristics of the innovation

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Agenda Setting Hypothesis

• Although the media may not be successful in
  telling us what to think, they are successful in
  telling us what to think about. (Cohen 1963)
• By seeing certain subjects more often we are
  becoming convinced that they are important.
• Further, we evaluate other news in terms of what
  is important

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Types of Agenda-Setting

• Media agenda-setting
• Institutional agenda-setting
• The public agenda
• It is important to remember that there are some
  objective constraints on agenda-setting
  (objective conditions).

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Gatekeeping

• Control over the selection of content discussed
  in the media

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Priming

• The ability of the media to affect which issues
  or traits individuals use to evaluate political
  figures.
• Individuals base their vote choice more on issues
  covered by the media than on issues not covered
  by the media
• The media's content will provide a lot of time
  and space to certain issues, making these issues
  more accessible and vivid in the public's mind

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Framing

• Framing effects result from the medias
  description of an event or issue that emphasizes
  potentially relevant considerations to help
  individuals make sense of the issue (e.g.,
  suggesting causes)
• Individuals view policy issues consistent with
  how they are portrayed by the media

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Framing

• A frame defines the packaging of an element of
  rhetoric in such a way as to encourage certain
  interpretations and to discourage others.
• E.g., Counterterrorism as law enforcement" vs.
  "Counterterrorism as war.

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Types of frames (examples)

• Causes of events
• Structural (socio-political structure)
• Attitudinal (beliefs/attitudes of individuals)
• Concerns
• Ethical (human rights, personal responsibility)
• Material (economic resources, environment)

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Important

• In evaluating media-effects theories it is
  important to remember that
• Most individuals have strong beliefs and views
  formed before a particular media influence
• Individuals are also influenced by things other
  than the media (e.g., friends)

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Models of Mass Media

• Reporters of Objective Fact
• Neutral Adversary
• Public Advocate
• Profit-Seeker
• Propagandist

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Reporters of Objective Fact

• An accurate reflection of reality
• Problems
• The media are unable to report all factssomeone
  must select the facts
• Is it possible to report the facts alone?

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Neutral adversary

• Reporters are gathering, evaluating and
  challenging available information, but are
  neutral
• (e.g., they challenge government officials and
  others in power).
• Problem
• Reporters interests and values could influence
  newsgathering process

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Public Advocate

• Reporters are agents of the public interest.
  They determine what the public interest is, they
  promote it, and engage citizens in the process.
• Problem
• But what is public interest?

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Profit seeker

• What becomes news is a byproduct of profit
  seeking
• Problem
• newsgathering and news reporting are the key to a
  profitable business

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Propagandist

• The chief purpose of the media is to support and
  advance the interests of those in positions of
  power.

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Motives of reporters/editors

• Say,
• Reporters of Objective Fact (50)
• Neutral Adversary (20)
• Public Advocate (20)
• Profit-Seeker (5)
• Propagandist (5)

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Motives of media owners

• Say,
• Reporters of Objective Fact (40)
• Neutral Adversary (5)
• Public Advocate (5)
• Profit-Seeker (40)
• Propagandist (10)

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Media bias (news content)

• Timeliness
• Human interest and drama
• Concrete events
• Focus on known actors (e.g., presidents)
• Crime, scandals, etc.
• Government conflict
• Victims (e.g., of crime, natural disaster)

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Media bias (ideological)

• Liberal or Conservative?

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The conservative critique media have liberal
bias

• The decisive power over the news lies with
  journalists owners and advertisers are
  irrelevant or relatively powerless.
• Journalists are political liberals.
• Journalists use their position to advance liberal
  politics.

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The liberal critiquemedia have conservative bias

• The decisive power over the news lies with owners
  and advertisers.
• Editors and reporters are independent only within
  the general boundaries of owners preferences.
• The owners are political conservatives.
• The owners use their position to advance
  conservative politics

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What is the point of reference?

• Is there a bias in the media (conservative or
  liberal)?
• How do you know that?
• In comparison with what?