After completing this topic, you should be able to:

1
QUALITY DEVELOPMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION

• After completing this topic, you should be able
  to
• Understand the development of quality movement
• Define the rationales for quality management
• Explain the various purposes of quality
  management
• Describe the implications of quality management
  in Higher Education Institutions
• Readings
• Chapter 2, B. Janakiraman R.K. Gopal, 2007
• Lee Harvey Berit Askling, 2003, Quality in
  Higher Education
• G. Srikanthan J. Dalrymple, 2002, Developing a
  holistic model for quality in higher education

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Evolution of Quality Hierarchy
Inspection
Inspect products
Detection (Reactive)
Operational techniques to make inspection more
efficient and to reduce the cost of quality
Quality Control
Planned and systematic actions to ensure that
products or services conform to company
requirements.
Quality Assurance
Prevention (Proactive)
Incorporates QC/QA activities into a company-wide
system aimed at satisfying the customer (involves
all organizational function).
Total Quality Management
3
Definisi kualiti dalam pendidikan tinggi

• Mengimbas beberapa definisi kualiti
• Exceptional kecemerlangan dan mempunyai
  standard yang tinggi (Harvard / Cambridge)
• Perfection kecacatan sifar dan fokus kepada
  proses.
• Value for money pulangan pelaburan.
• Transformation berkualiti apabila dapat
  mengubah pelajar secara berterusan dan memberi
  tambah nilai.
• Fit for purpose memenuhi keperluan pelanggan.
• (Harvey Green, 1993)

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Reputation
Industrial effectiveness of graduates
Market share
Quality of entering students
Quality of graduates
Quality of teaching
Equipment and support service
Staff capability
Financial power
Staff selectivity
Quality of research
Grants and funding absorption
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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

• Rationales for emphasis on quality
• Higher education for the masses
• Growing climate on accountability
• Greater expectations on HEI
• Diversity of students as consumers
• Increasing levels of competition within and
  across national borders
• Role of HE in stimulating economic growth
• Value of international students to national
  economies

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Innovators of Modern Quality Thinking

• U.S quality innovators
• Walter Shewhart (1920s 1940s)
• W. Edwards Deming (Post WWII until 1980s)
• Joseph M. Juran (post WWII until 1980s)
• Philip Crosby (1980s)
• Armand Feigenbaum (1970s 1980s)
• Japanese quality innovators
• Kaoru Ishikawa (post WWII until 1980s)
• Genichi Taguchi (1960s 1980s)
• Shigeo Shingo (post WWII until 1980s)

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Walter Shewhart Quality Thinking

• Defined quality in terms of objective and
  subjective quality
• Objective quality quality of a thing is
  independent of people.
• Subjective quality quality is relative to how
  people perceive it (value)
• Originator of the plan-do-check-act cycle.
• May be the first to successfully integrate
  statistics, engineering, and economics.
• Founder of control chart

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Deming Quality Development

• Quality as a result of redefinition of
  management
• The people work in a system. The job of the
  manager is to work on the system, to improve it
  continuously, with their help (W. Edwards
  Deming).
• The reason quality efforts failed because many
  managers unable to carry out their
  responsibilities because they have not been
  trained in how to improve the quality system.
• Quality is viewed as total quality because it
  covers every process, every job, and every
  person.
• For Higher education it is viewed as a system,
  utilizing systematic, scheduled and focused
  strategies on the control of quality.

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Overview of Quality Development - Deming
Focus on ten management actions 1.Recognize
quality improvement as a system. 2.Define it so
that others can recognize it too. 3.Analyze its
behavior. 4.Work with subordinates in improving
the system. 5.Measure the quality of the
system. 6.Develop improvements in the quality of
the system. 7.Measure the gains in quality, if
any, and link them to customer delight and
quality improvement. 8.Take steps to guarantee
holding the gains. 9.Attempt to replicate the
improvements in other areas of the
system. 10.Tell others about the lessons learn.
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Dr. W. Edwards Deming

• Born on October 14, 1900 and his Ph.D in Physics
  at Yale University in 1927.
• He was a statistician, professor, author,
  lecturer and consultant.
• While working at Western Hawthorne Electric Plant
  in Chicago he noticed the poor working conditions
  and environment for the workers.
• Scientific management system was at fault due to
  the objectives and advocated the System of
  Profound Knowledge emphasizing on understanding
  the overall process of goods and services, the
  range and causes of variation in quality (use of
  statistical methods), the concepts of explaining
  knowledge, and the concepts of human nature
  (knowledge of psychology).
• Was credited with improving production in the
  USA.
• His best work was in Japan in the 1950s where he
  taught the basic Elementary Principles of
  Statistical Control of Quality.
• Known for Demings 14 points and Seven Deadly
  Diseases.
• He is often viewed as a visionary of quality.

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Dr. W. Edwards Deming 14 points

• Create constancy of purpose towards improvement
  of products and services.
• Adopt the new philosophy
• Cease dependence on inspection to achieve
  quality.
• End the practice of awarding business on price
  tag alone. Minimize total cost.
• Improve constantly the system of production and
  service.
• Institute modern methods of training on the job.
• Institute leadership modern methods of
  supervising.

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Dr. W. Edwards Deming 14 points

• Drive out fear by encouraging everybody to ask
  questions, to report problems, or to express
  ideas.
• Break down barriers between departments.
• Eliminate numerical goals for the work force
  targets, slogans, pictures and posters urging
  people to increase productivity must be
  eliminated. The goal is never ending improvement.
• Eliminate work standards and numerical quotas.
• Remove the barriers that affect the pride of
  workmanship.
• Institute a vigorous program of education and
  training.
• Create a structure in top management that will
  push everyday the above 13 points
  transformation is everyones work.
• (see chapter 5 in Janakiraman Gopal, 2007)

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Deming Seven Deadly Diseases

1. Lack of constancy of purpose.
2. Emphasis on short-term profits.
3. Evaluation by performance, merit rating, or
   annual review of performance.
4. Mobility of management.
5. Running a company on visible figures alone.
6. Excessive medical costs.
7. Excessive costs of warranty.

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Joseph Juran

• Son of an immigrant shoemaker from Romania and
  began his industrial career at Western Electrics
  Hawthorne plant before World War II.
• Worked as a government administrator, university
  professor, labor arbitrator, and corporate
  director.
• Jurans impact on quality in Japan was second
  after Deming.
• Juran defined quality as fitness for use meaning
  that users of a product or service should be able
  to count on it what they needed or wanted to do
  with it.
• Jurans theory of fitness for use has five major
  dimensions quality of design, quality of
  conformance, availability, safety, and field use
  (products conformance and condition after it
  reaches customers hands).

15
Kaoru Ishikawa

• Ishikawa identified seven critical success
  factors for the success of total quality control
  in Japan
• Company wide total quality control and
  participation by all members.
• Education and training in all aspects of total
  quality.
• Use of quality circles to update standards and
  regulations.
• Quality audits.
• Widespread use of statistical methods and focus
  on problem prevention.
• Nationwide quality control promotion activities.
• Revolutionary mental attitude on the part of both
  management and workers towards one another and
  the customers.

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Philip Crosby

• Known for his motivational talks and style of
  presentation in the 1960s.
• Developed the concept of zero defects while
  working as a quality manager at Martin Marietta
  Corporation in Orlando, Florida.
• Zero defects to turn out perfect products.
• Introduced total quality management philosophy /
  absolutes of quality
• Definition of quality is conformance to
  requirements.
• The system of quality is prevention of problems.
• The performance standard of quality is zero
  defects.
• The measurement of quality is the price of
  nonconformance, or the cost of quality.
• Has 14 points program for quality improvement.

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Philip Crosbys 14 point program

• Management commitment top mgmt must be
  convinced of the need for quality improvement.
• Quality improvement team mgmt must form a team
  of department heads to oversee quality
  improvement.
• Quality measurement quality measures
  appropriate to every activity must be established
  to identify areas need for improvement.
• Cost of quality evaluation estimate the cost of
  quality to identify areas where quality
  improvements would be profitable.
• Quality awareness must be raised among
  employees.
• Corrective action opportunities for correction
  should be pushed.
• Zero defects planning ad hoc zero defects
  committee should be formed from members of the
  quality improvement team.

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Philip Crosbys 14 point program

1. Supervisor training all levels of management
   must be trained to implement quality improvement
   program.
2. Zero defects day should be scheduled so that
   everybody aware.
3. Goal setting individuals must establish
   improvement goals.
4. Error cause removal employees be encouraged to
   inform management of any problems that prevent
   them from performing error-free work.
5. Recognition public, non-financial appreciation
   must be given to those who meet their quality
   goals.
6. Quality councils quality professionals and team
   should meet regularly to share experiences,
   problems, and ideas.
7. Do it all over again the program involving the
   13 steps above must be repeated to emphasize the
   never-ending process of quality improvement.

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Armand Feigenbaum

• Best known for total quality control in the
  1960s.
• His teachings focus on the integration of
  people-machine-information structures to achieve
  economically and effectively control quality as
  well as customer satisfaction.
• Advocates two requirements to establish quality
  establishing customer satisfaction must be
  central and quality/cost objectives must drive
  the total quality system.
• His systems theory of total quality control has
  four principles
• Total quality is a continuous work process.
• Documentation allows visualization and
  communication of work assignments.
• Quality system provides greater flexibility
  because of a greater use of alternatives
  provided.
• Systematic re-engineering of major quality
  activities leads to greater levels of continuous
  improvement.

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Genichi Taguchi (1960s 1980s)

• Developed quality loss function (deviation from
  target is a loss to society).
• Prompted the use of parameter design (application
  of design of experiments) or robust engineering.

Shigeo Shingo (post WWII 1980s)

• Replaced statistical process control with source
  inspection (control quality at source rather than
  through sampling inspections).
• Referred to his system as a zero defect approach
  because it is the ultimate goal.

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

• Previous research on quality in HE reveals that
• No universal consensus on how best to manage
  quality within HE.
• A variety of quality management models have been
  implemented in different HEIs.
• There was a reliance on industry quality
  management models despite the fact that these
  models have been applied with partial success.

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

• Measuring and managing quality in HE
• Quality has different meanings for different
  stakeholders.
• Education quality is a rather vague and
  controversial concept.
• A notoriously ambiguous term because it has
  different meanings to different stakeholders.
• As a result, quality measurement and management
  are seen to be debatable.

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

• Quality Assurance has been seen as the important
  element in quality management.
• QA is the focus of external stakeholders which
  demand for increase knowledge and skills-based
  quality to support government national agendas.
• QA is defined as the planned and systematic
  actions deemed necessary to provide adequate
  confidence that a product or service will satisfy
  given requirements for quality (Borahan
  Ziarati, quoted in Becket Brookes, 200841)

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

• Quality Control the organized effort employed
  by the company organization to provide and
  maintain in the final product the desired
  features, properties and characteristics of
  identity, purity, uniformity, potency and
  stability within established levels so that all
  merchandise shall meet professional requirement,
  legal standards as the management of a firm may
  adopt (Janakiraman Gopal, 2007, p.14)

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

• National organizations responsible for the
  management of quality have been established in
  many countries.
• UK the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) is
  responsible to inspect, audit and report on the
  quality procedures within institutions.
• Australia the Australian Universities Quality
  Agency (AUQA) is responsible to monitor, audit
  and report on QA in HE.
• Malaysia the Malaysian Qualifications Agency
  (MQA) is responsible to ensure the quality
  assurance of HEIs.

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CURRENT QUALITY MANAGEMENT MODELS

• Total Quality Management (TQM)
• a management approach of an organization,
  centered on quality, based on the participation
  of all its members and aiming at long run success
  through customer satisfaction and benefits to all
  members of the organization and to society (ISO
  8402, quoted in Becket Brookes, 200843)
• It is a comprehensive approach to quality
  management that aspires to improve on quality
  through change and innovation.
• Encompasses the quality perspectives of both
  internal and external stakeholders.
• Works to achieve long term benefits for those
  involved and society as a whole.

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Implication of current models

• HEIs appear to rely heavily on industrial quality
  models.
• Benefits gained from these models have been on
  administrative and service function.
• Questions were raised by critics on the level of
  management and leadership skills in HEIs.

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Driving forces for quality movement New public
management movement decreasing budgets students
enrolment increasing competition increasing
demands from business and industry increasing
demands from accountable body increasing demands
from accrediting agencies Accountability
considerations may motivate government interest
in the characteristics and performance standards
of higher education systems.
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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY MOVEMENT

• Japan initiated a quality revolution in the
  1970s (Crosby, 1979)
• The United States joined the quality race in the
  mid 1980s and has also made rapid advances
  (Walton, 1986)
• More recently, Europeans have launched
  cooperative efforts to improve quality
• 1990s have been a decade of quality approaches in
  HEIs
• Government emphasis was on value for money and
  fitness for purpose

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY MOVEMENT

• Quality has become a mechanism of control in the
  1990s
• Procedures and methods of quality management were
  prevalent whereby HEIs have to respond to new
  challenges and increase their internal capacity.
• New public-sector management emphasized on
  improving the efficiency and effectiveness of
  public services.
• In the United Kingdom (UK), the government
  concerned about quality and wanted to ensure that
  there was accountability on the public money that
  was spent.
• In the Netherlands, In return for greater
  autonomy, institutions would be expected to
  develop their own systems of quality control and
  assurance that would demonstrate accountability
  for the use of public funds.

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY MOVEMENT

• In France the Act of Parliament 1985 set up an
  independent body to evaluate higher education
  establishments and the value of the public
  service tasks that they provide.
• In Australia, the Green Paper 1985 put the
  emphasis on the balanced between financial
  discretion with accountability. In 1988 the White
  Paper introduced a new funding mechanism.
• In USA, the National Institute of Education
  report 1984 called for greater student
  involvement in the learning process and focus
  more on the outcomes of the process.
• Only Germany did resist the external quality
  monitoring.

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY MOVEMENT

• It was concluded that quality has been used as a
  vehicle for delivering policy requirements within
  available resources.
• It also operates as a mechanism to encourage
  change and to legitimate policy-driven change
  which includes making higher education more
  relevant to social and economic needs, widening
  access, expanding numbers and doing it with a
  decreasing unit cost.
• In short, external quality monitoring (EQM)
  became the predominant operational mechanism
  through which quality is used to legitimate
  policy.

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THE DEVOLUTION OF ACCOUNTABILITY

• Degree of control, extent of devolved
  responsibility, funding systems and the structure
  of organization vary from one country to the
  other.
• However, there was a tendency towards a dominant
  model of delegated accountability using
  standardized review methodology.
• The traditional British system of autonomous
  institutions have been shifting towards a
  government-backed requirements to demonstrate
  accountability and value for money.
• Delegated responsibility became a new trend for
  countries like China, Eastern Europe, South
  America and Scandinavia but followed by increase
  accountability and open to scrutiny.

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PURPOSES OF QUALITY MONITORING

• There are four specific purposes of quality
  monitoring according to Harvey Askling (2003)
• Accountability
• Control
• Compliance
• Improvement

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PURPOSES OF QUALITY MONITORING
Object Focus Rationale Approach Mechanism
Provider Governance regulation Accountability Accreditation Self-assessment
Medium of delivery Curriculum design, admin Control Audit Performance indicators
Output Learning experience Compliance Assessment Visit
Learner Qualification Improvement Standards monitoring Customer surveys
National Regional International
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PURPOSES OF QUALITY MONITORING

• Accountability to ensure value for money,
  program is organized and run properly, quality of
  institutions and programs.
• Control government control, control of status
  and standing of higher education.
• Compliance compliance to emerging/existing
  government policy.
• Improvement to encourage process of continuous
  improvement of the learning process and outcomes.
  

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FORMS OF QUALITY MONITORING

• Accreditation establishment or revalidation of
  status, legitimacy of institution, program,
  module of study.
• Audit process of checking to ensure specified
  practices and procedures are in place.
• Assessment measure the level of quality inputs,
  processes and sometime outputs.
• Standards monitoring monitor standards on
  programs by regulatory or professional bodies.
• Customer surveys feedback from students,
  employees as indicators of service provision.

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY MOVEMENT

• The Baldrige Award, Deming Prize, and ISO9000
  registration are three among many quality systems
  that may be taken together to establish TQM
• The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
  (MBNQA) is the highest level of national
  recognition for quality that a United States
  company can achieve
• The Deming Prize (initiated in 1951) has long
  been recognized in business
• In 1987, the International Organization for
  Standardization (ISO) published a series of
  global quality system standards

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QUALITY ASSESSMENT

• What is quality assessment?
• Impact of quality assessment can be seen as a
  function of two things the methods used and the
  national and institutional contexts for their
  use.
• At national level quality assessment is a form of
  government way to steer higher education.
• At institutional level, quality assessment is
  associated with greater autonomy, flexibility due
  to diversity in terms of size, structures,
  prestige, resources, mission, history and
  leadership.

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METHODS OF QUALITY ASSESSMENT

• The generic model of quality assessment model
  includes elements
• a national coordinating body
• institutional self-evaluation
• external evaluation by academic peers
• published reports
• Differences of methods are found in who assess
  what, how, and how often.

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QUALITY ASSESSMENT

• Context
• National
• Institutional

• Impact
• Levels Mechanism
• System (a) Rewards
• Institution (b) Policies/Structures
• Basic unit (c) Cultures
• Individual

• Methods
• National
• Internal

The impact of quality assessment (Brennan
Shah, 2001, p.10)
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THE IMPACT OF QUALITY ASSESSMENT

• The impact can be divided into two levels -
  institutional level and the mechanism of impact.
• Levels include the individual, the basic unit
  (department, faculty), the institution, the
  national system.
• Mechanism includes rewards and incentives,
  policies and structures (changed committee or
  curriculum), and cultures (academic values,
  priorities and relationships).
• Improved academic standards and learning
  outcomes.
• Existence of debates over the assumption of
  impact as presumed improvement or enhancement.
• Ideological is about improvement.

43
VALUES AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT

• Four types of quality values (Brennan Shah,
  2000)
• Type1 based on traditional academic values
  which focuses on the subject field and quality is
  associated with strong professorial authority and
  control on academic hierarchy. Conceptions of
  quality are based on subject affiliation and vary
  across institutions.
• Type2 managerial, associated with an
  institutional focus of assessment, with a concern
  about procedures and structures with an
  assumption that quality can be produced by good
  management.

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VALUES AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT

• Four types of quality values (Brennan Shah,
  2000)
• Type3 pedagogic, and the focus is on people, on
  their teaching skills and classroom practice. It
  is associated with training and staff
  development. Little emphasis on the content of
  education but a lot on its delivery.
• Type4 employment focus, emphasis is on graduate
  output characteristics, on standards and learning
  outcomes. Takes into account customers
  requirements, where the customers are regarded as
  the employers of the graduates.

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THE IMPACT OF QUALITY ASSESSMENT

• Quality assessment is sometimes viewed as a means
  of challenging and attempting to change existing
  educational values.
• Impact of Quality Assessment could be upon
  decision-making processes how decisions are
  made, by whom, against what criteria.
• How quality assessment is organized and managed
  is a question of power and the introduction of
  system of quality assessment is therefore
  involved the changing of power balance between
  the institutional and systems levels.

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VALUES OF QUALITY
Type 1 Academic Subject focus knowledge curricula Professorial authority Quality values vary across institution
Type 2 Managerial Institutional focus policies procedures Managerial authority Quality values invariant across institution
Type 3 Pedagogic People focus skills competencies Staff developers /educationalist influence Quality values invariant across institution
Type 4 Employment focus Output focus graduate standards/learning outcomes Employment/professional authority Quality values variant and invariant across institution
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The Malcom Baldrige Quality Award

• Widely used in higher education settings, the
  goal is to fulfill customer satisfaction.
• The core values and concepts of the award
  consists of seven categories
• Leadership
• Information analysis
• Strategic quality planning
• Human resource development and management
• Management of process quality
• Quality operational results
• Customer focus and satisfaction

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The Baldrige Award

• Leadership
• Set company directions and seek future
  opportunities
• A description of companys leadership system
• Organizational performance review
• Learning through the work force
• Responsibilities to the public
• Strategic quality planning
• New opportunities Action Plan Development and
  Deployment
• Managing the competitive environment
• Risks financial, market, technological, and
  societal

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The Baldrige Award
Information and analysis Examines the
effectiveness of the use of data and information
to support key company processes and companys
performance management system Human resource
development and management To develop and
utilize work force potential Create and
maintain performance excellence Process
management Key aspects of process
management How key processes are designed,
effectively managed, and improved
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The Baldrige Award
Operational results Business results and
performance Financial performance Emphasize
quality system alignment Foster a learning
organization Benchmarking
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Malcom Baldrige National Quality Award

• Examples of recipients in USA
• Richland College, Dallas. 2005 recipient
  comprehensive campus management in the community
  college setting.
• University of Northern Colorados Monfort College
  of Business for quality management system applied
  to one school within a regional university.
• University of Wisconsin-Stout for the most
  comprehensive approach to quality management in
  higher education.