???: Robert E. Ricklefs and Gary L. Miller (2000) Ecology. 4th ed. W. H. Freeman and Company.

1
??? ???????

• ??? ??
• ??? Robert E. Ricklefs and Gary L. Miller (2000)
  Ecology. 4th ed. W. H. Freeman and Company.

2
??? ???????

• 2.1 ?????????,???????????????
• 2.2 ??????,???????
• 2.3 ?????????(parameters)?
• 2.4 ????,???????????
• 2.5 ??????(treatments)???????

3
??? ???????

• 2.6 ?????,????????????
• 2.7 ?????????????????
• 2.8 ??????????????
• 2.9 ?????????????????
• 2.10 ?????????

4
??

• ????????,???????,???????????,?????????????????????
  ?
• ????(1) ??????????????(2) ?????,??????? (3)
  ???????????,???????? (4) ????????

5
2.1 ?????????,???????????????

• ??Lake Vitoria ?cichlid(??) fishes??,??????????
• ?????????,??????Nile ??????????(null hypothesis)
• alternative hypotheses?????,?????????????????????
  ?(?????????)?

6
Theoretical ecological models

• Two variables are hypothesized to have a positive
  linear relationship (y mx b)
• this relationship might be generally true, but it
  is unlikely that it is exactly true. (Fig.2-1)
• it accurately represents the essence of the
  relationship.

7
Foraging animal obtains reward

• ?????????,?????????variables(??)????
• (1) ??????? Ts (time searching)
• (2) ??????? ?
• (3) ??????? h (handling time)
• (4) ?????(prey)?????Ep

8
Foraging animal obtains reward

• ??????,???????? Ts?
• ????????? (Ts?)Ep
• ???????(??) (Ts?)h
• ?????????(T) Ts (Ts?)h
• E / T (Ts?)Ep / (Ts (Ts?)h)
• ?Ep / (1 ?h)
• ref. chap.31 (p.651)

9
2.2 ??????,???????

• ????????????????
• ?????????????????
• ?????????????????????????????(Fig.2-2)
• What is the average number of flowers visited by
  a bee in one day?
• ?????????,??????????,????,?????????,???????(true
  average number)

10
2.2 ??????,??????

• ?????????????????????????????????????????,? true
  average number?????????????????????

11
??????

• ?????????,???????,?????????????????????,???????
• ????????????????,??????????
• ????????????????..
• ?????????,???????????,?????.

12
Uncertainty and statistics

• If we question nature carefully and
  systematically, we may learn a great deal about
  it, but we may never be absolutely certain that
  our conclusion is correct.
• Because of this uncertainty, scientist rely on
  probabilistic models of inquiry embodied in the
  science of statistics, the study and analysis of
  quantitative data.

13
Basic Statistics

• Parameteran unknown true characteristic of a
  system is called a parameter.
• A parameter is estimated by a statistic, which is
  calculated from samples.
• The group of all the possible measurements of a
  variable is called the statistical population.
  (Fig. 2-3)

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Normal distribution

• Variance (?2) ?(xi - ?)2/N
• ? ? the parametric mean
• N?statistical population size
• xi? ? i ????
• sample variance (s2) ?(xi - ?)2/(n-1)
• ???sample????
• n ?sample sizen-1? degrees of freedom

15
Standard deviation and error

• The spread about the mean of a normal
  distribution is Standard deviation.
• Standard deviation (s) s2????
• 68??1?sd????,
• 95??2?sd?????(Fig.2-3)
• Standard error (SE) s /(n???)
• a measure of the precision of a statistic
• ?????,???????(???)

16
2.3 ?????????(parameters)?

• ????? (sampling studies)
• ????????? (Fig.2-4)
• ?????? (correlation analysis)
• ???????? (multivariate statistics)

17
Long-term Ecological monitoring

• ???Costa Rica?The golden toad (Bufo periglenes)
  (Fig.2-6)
• ????1987-1989??????????????
• ??toads????Monteverde Cloud ????????1987????,?????
  ?????????1,500?toads????1990-1992?????????????????
  ,?????????????

18
Long-term Ecological studies

• The Declining Amphibian population Task Force
  (DAPTF) 1991-
• 1980- U.S. National Science Foundation
• Long-Term Research sites (LTER sites)
• Table 2-1
• 1997????????? sites (Phoenix and Baltimore)

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2.4 ????,???????????

• Sampling studies do not yield information about
  the causes of hawk migration or the fish spawning
  cycle.
• ??causes,??????? experiment
• The goal of an experiment is to make an inference
  about a null hypothesis, that is, to determine
  whether it is more likely that the null
  hypothesis is true or false. (Fig.2-7)

20
Uncertainty (????)

• Just as with the estimation of a parameter
  through sampling, we can usually never determine
  conclusively whether or not a null hypothesis is
  actually true.
• Thus, there is some uncertainty inherent in any
  experimental procedure.

21
Guilt or innocence ?

• Null hypothesis is the person is not guilty of
  the crime.
• ????????????????,??????,????????,????
• ??????,???,????????!(type I and type II) (Fig.2-8)

22
Type I and type II error

• ???????(??null hypothesis),????????? type I
  error?
• Rejected a true null hypothesis
• ???????(??null hypothesis),???????type II error?
• Which is the acceptance of a false null hypothesis

23
Uncertainty

• It is important to appreciate that the presence
  of uncertainty and the possibility of making an
  error.
• Uncertainty is a part of all fields of scholarly
  inquiry.
• The experimental approach of science quantifies
  and minimizes the uncertainty inherent in
  inquiry.

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2.5 ??????(treatments)???????

• ????????????
• (1) ?????????????
• (2) ?????????????,???????????????
• (3) ?????????????,????null hypotheses ??????

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????????????

• One or a combination of the following factors
• (1) human-produced toxic residues from pesticides
  and herbicides.
• (2) increasing amounts of ultraviolet light
• (3) human land use.
• (4) activity of fungi and parasites.

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Solar radiation

• ??? 400?700 nanometers (nm, 10-9 m)
• ultravioletA(UV-A)320 - 400 nm
• UV-B??? 280 - 320 nm
• UV-C?? 280 nm ?????,??????????????
• ??????,??????????UV-B?????DNA????

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Ozone layer (stratosphere)

• ?10-50km???,???ozone layer?
• O2 ??UV???O O
• O O2 ?? O3
• ?? chloroflurocarbons (CFCs)
• Cl O3 ?ClO O2
• ClO O ?Cl O2
• which are involved in further dissociation of
  ozone.

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Blaustein ?????

• ??UV???????????
• dependent variable(response variable)????????(hatc
  hing success)
• ??(treatments)?UV,?? independent variables
• one treatment is the normal condition. This
  treatment is called the control.(???)

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Blaustein ?????

• ??lakes in the Cascade Mountains
• ??Hyla regilla, Rana cascadae ?Bufo boreans.
• ??evaluate the effect of UV-B?hatching
  success???
• ?? 28cm x 38cm x 7cm???,??????????????????24??????
  ??????12??(Fig.2-9)??????,???5-10cm?

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Blaustein ?????

• ?????????(???,???24??)???????????150??
• ????????(UV-B)?80?????????
• ???12???,?3???,????????4????? replicates (??)?
• The four enclosures receiving the same treatment
  are called replicates of the experiment.

31
Blaustein ?????

• Fig.2-10 ??????? (bars)
• standard error of the mean
• the standard error is a measure of how precise
  the measurement of hatching success is.
• If the standard error lines of two bars overlap,
  then the measurement is not precise enough to say
  that there is a difference between the two
  treatments represented by those bars.

32
Blaustein ?????????

• These exp provide important information about the
  possible causes of frog population declines. But
  How UV-B disrupts hatching ?
• ???????,?????????????Capability for DNA repair of
  UV-B damage
• He found the R. cascadae and B. boreas had very
  low levels of the enzyme, whereas the levels in
  Hyla species were much higher.

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2.6 ?????,????????????

• The pattern of evolutionary relationships among
  species is called a phylogeny.
• Ecologists appreciate that an understanding of
  the phylogeny of a species is essential to a deep
  understanding of its ecological relationships.
• Fig. 2-11 a cladogram

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2.7 ????????????????

• ???????????????
• The observation, sampling and monitoring of the
  natural world is limited as much by
  ingenuity(??), creativity(???), and courage(??)
  as by simple curiosity(???).
• ?????? high canopy of tropical rain forests???
  (Fig. 2-12)

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Funding ecological research

• U.S. Department of Agriculture
• Environmental Protection Agency
• military services
• private industry and governmental agencies
• National Science Foundation, National Institutes
  of Health

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2.8 ??????????????

• ?????????,???????,????????
• ????,?????(??)???review articles???????? popular
  magazines or newspaper, popular books,???
  textbooks?

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2.9 ?????????????????

• Agriculture and aquaculture are unalterably
  dependent on the ecological relationships of the
  natural world (Fig. 2-13)
• Modern ecology includes the study not only of
  undisturbed parts of the natural world, but also
  of croplands, replanted forests, and managed fish
  and game populations.

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2.10 ?????????

• Physiological ecology (ecophysiology)
• Behavioral ecology
• Community ecology
• Evolutionary ecology
• Landscape ecology (?????)
• Conservation biology
• Restoration ecology

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???

• Environmental science focuses on understanding
  the specific impacts of humans on the
  environment.
• Ecotoxicology interested in human-made substances
  affect human health.
• Environmentalism, conservationism and
  preservationism are social and political
  movements.

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?????

• ?????!