AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS

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AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS Part 1
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Objectives

• Air Quality Regulations in U.S.
• What are Air Quality Standards?
• What is a PSD program?
• Discuss various Clean Air Act amendments.
• How is emission trading used to manage air
  quality?
• What is ISO14000?

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Air Pollution

• A threat to the ecosystem in recent years.
• Global problem affecting human beings, trees,
  lakes, crops, and animals.
• Damages ozone layer.
• Creates acid rain.
• The effects are diverse and numerous.

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Water Pollution

• Contamination of water bodies such as lakes,
  rivers, oceans, and ground water.
• Problems are more noticeable and immediate in
  their effect.
• Often recognized before it reaches crisis
  proportions.
• Public complaints are immediate.

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Why Air Pollution Laws Were Not Developed?

• Serious health related problems take a long
  time to show up as a result of exposure to air
  pollutants. Therefore, public may not appreciate
  the importance of air pollution laws.
• Often disregarded as a health and safety issue.

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GOALS OF AIR QUALITY REGULATIONS

• Protect and enhance air quality.
• Protect and promote human health and public
  welfare.
• Air pollution control at state and local level.
• Reduce the most significant risks to human health
  or the environment.
• Determine risk-based priorities.

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Essential Items

• Human Effort
• Money
• Technical Knowledge

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History of Air Quality Regulations

• Prior to 1940 Very little by way of formal
  regulations. Air Pollution Control Ordinance
  (around 1815)
• 1940 - 1955 Initiation of practical efforts in
  the US as a result of LA type fog
• 1955 -1990 Development, Implementation, and
  Modification of Regulations
• 2001 onwards New approaches to apply standards,
  Review of standards
• Note Before passage of 1970 Clean Air
  Amendments, Air Pollution Laws were sometimes
  similar to Water Pollution Laws

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History of Air Quality Regulations

• 1955 Research for scope and sources of air
  pollution
• 1963 Research for techniques to minimize air
  pollution
• 1970 Regulated emissions from stationary and
  mobile sources
• 1977 Prevention of Significant Deterioration
  (PSD) of air quality for non-attainment areas
• 1990 Control of Acid Deposition

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History of Air Quality Regulations

• 2003 Modern pollution-control equipment for
  power plants built before 1977
• 2004 Reducing pollutants emitted by
  diesel-powered equipment
• 2005 NOx emission standard for aircraft engines
• 2007 Benzene control technologies for refineries
• 2009 Reporting of GHG emissions from all the
  sectors

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Role of Business Cycle in Regulations

• The US is moving from a manufacturing industry
  to a service industry with an emphasis on
  recreational type of activities.
• Conventional pollutants during early phase
  (visible emissions)
• Toxic pollutants (invisible pollutants) after
  Bhopal accident
• Small sources, non-point sources (area sources,
  fugitive emissions)
• Global problems (GHGs, Climate change)

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Federal Regulations on Air Pollution
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Types of Laws

• Common
• The body of law that has grown out of common
  tradition and usage, as stated in court decisions
  - usually concerns private rights.
• Statute
• The body of law that has been passed by
  legislators (e.g US Congress) and stated in
  formal documents - usually concerns rights of
  general public.
• Statute laws usually do not take away a
  citizen's right to sue

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Other Legal Terms

• Tort
• A willful or negligent injury to a person,
  property, or reputation
• Nuisance
• Unlawful invasion of a possessor's interest in
  the reasonable use and enjoyment of property
• Private Nuisance
• Only the plaintiff or a small, well defined class
  of plaintiffs are affected
• Plaintiff(s) could take action
• Public Nuisance
• Many people in the community are affected
• Only government could take action

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Management of Air Quality

• Emission Standards
• Air Quality Standards
• Pollution Taxes
• Cost-Benefit Analysis
• Risk Standards Based on Pollution

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Emission Standards

• Emission Standards limit the amount or
  concentration of a contaminant that may be
  emitted from a source.
• Visible emission standards.
• Particulate emission standards.
• Particulate process weight (or mass) standards.
• Gas concentration standards.
• Prohibition of emissions.
• Regulation of fuel.
• Zoning restrictions.
• Dispersion based standards.

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Emission Standards for On-Road Diesel Engines
Source Diesel.net (http//www.dieselnet.com)
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Emission Standards for On-Road Diesel Engines
California Emission Standards for Heavy-Duty
Diesel Engines
Year NMHC (g/bhp-hr) THC (g/bhp-hr) CO (g/bhp-hr) NOx (g/bhp-hr) PM (g/bhp-hr)
Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck Engines Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck Engines Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck Engines Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck Engines Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck Engines Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck Engines
1987 - 1.3 15.5 6.0 0.60
1991 1.2 1.3 15.5 5.0 0.25
1994 1.2 1.3 15.5 5.0 0.10
Urban Bus Engines Urban Bus Engines Urban Bus Engines Urban Bus Engines Urban Bus Engines Urban Bus Engines
1991 1.2 1.3 15.5 5.0 0.10
1994 1.2 1.3 15.5 5.0 0.07
1996 1.2 1.3 15.5 4.0 0.05
Source Diesel.net (http//www.dieselnet.com)
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Emission Standards for Non-Road Diesel Engines
Engine Power Tier Year CO (g/bhp-hr) HC (g/bhp-hr) NMHCNOX (g/bhp-hr) NOX (g/bhp-hr) PM (g/bhp-hr)
kW lt 8 (hp lt 11) Tier 1 2000 8.0 (6.0) - 10.5 (7.8) - 1.0 (0.75)
kW lt 8 (hp lt 11) Tier 2 2005 8.0 (6.0) - 7.5 (5.6) - 0.8 (0.6)
8 kW lt 19 (11 hp lt 25) Tier 1 2000 6.6 (4.9) - 9.5 (7.1) - 0.8 (0.6)
8 kW lt 19 (11 hp lt 25) Tier 2 2005 6.6 (4.9) - 7.5 (5.6) - 0.8 (0.6)
19 kW lt 37(25 hp lt 50) Tier 1 1999 5.5 (4.1) - 9.5 (7.1) - 0.8 (0.6)
19 kW lt 37(25 hp lt 50) Tier 2 2004 5.5 (4.1) - 7.5 (5.6) - 0.6 (0.45)
37 kW lt 75(50 hp lt 100) Tier 1 1998 - - - 9.2 (6.9) -
37 kW lt 75(50 hp lt 100) Tier 2 2004 5.0 (3.7) - 7.5 (5.6) - 0.4 (0.3)
37 kW lt 75(50 hp lt 100) Tier 3 2008 5.0 (3.7) - 4.7 (3.5) - -
75 kW lt 130(100 hp lt 175) Tier 1 1997 - - - 9.2 (6.9) -
75 kW lt 130(100 hp lt 175) Tier 2 2003 5.0 (3.7) - 6.6 (4.9) - 0.3 (0.22)
75 kW lt 130(100 hp lt 175) Tier 3 2007 5.0 (3.7) - 4.0 (3.0) - -
130 kW lt 225(175 hp lt 300) Tier 1 1996 11.4 (8.5) 1.3 (1.0) - 9.2 (6.9) 0.54 (0.4)
130 kW lt 225(175 hp lt 300) Tier 2 2003 3.5 (2.6) - 6.6 (4.9) - 0.2 (0.15)
130 kW lt 225(175 hp lt 300) Tier 3 2006 3.5 (2.6) - 4.0 (3.0) - -
225 kW lt 450(300 hp lt 600) Tier 1 1996 11.4 (8.5) 1.3 (1.0) - 9.2 (6.9) 0.54 (0.4)
225 kW lt 450(300 hp lt 600) Tier 2 2001 3.5 (2.6) - 6.4 (4.8) - 0.2 (0.15)
225 kW lt 450(300 hp lt 600) Tier 3 2006 3.5 (2.6) - 4.0 (3.0) - -
450 kW lt 560(600 hp lt 750) Tier 1 1996 11.4 (8.5) 1.3 (1.0) - 9.2 (6.9) 0.54 (0.4)
450 kW lt 560(600 hp lt 750) Tier 2 2002 3.5 (2.6) - 6.4 (4.8) - 0.2 (0.15)
450 kW lt 560(600 hp lt 750) Tier 3 2006 3.5 (2.6) - 4.0 (3.0) - -
kW 560(hp 750) Tier 1 2000 11.4 (8.5) 1.3 (1.0) - 9.2 (6.9) 0.54 (0.4)
kW 560(hp 750) Tier 2 2006 3.5 (2.6) - 6.4 (4.8) - 0.2 (0.15)
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Standards for Stationary Sources
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Performance Standards for Fossil Fuels
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Standards for Municipal Waste Combustors
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Standards for Particulate Emissions
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Emission Factors for Coal Combustion
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Air Quality Standards

• Air Quality Standards Prescribe the pollutant
  levels that cannot be legally exceeded during a
  specific time period in a specific geographic
  region
• 1970
• Primary Standards
• Protection of public health (to be achieved
  regardless of cost and within the specified time
  limit)
• Secondary Standards
• To protect public from known and anticipated
  adverse effects
• Time schedule to be determined by state and local
  governments

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National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(Source USEPA)
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National Ambient Air Quality Standards
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Pollution Taxes

• Used in the US on a limited scale
• Home energy efficiency improvement tax credits
• Windows and Doors
• Insulation
• Roofs
• Heating and cooling equipments
• Residential renewable energy tax credits
• Solar energy systems (solar water heating and
  solar electric systems)
• Small wind systems
• Geothermal heat pumps
• Residential fuel cell and Microturbine systems
• Automobile tax credits
• Hybrid Gas-Electric and Alternative Fuel Vehicles
• Plug-In Electric Vehicles
• Plug-In Hybrid Conversion Kits
• Low Speed 2-3 Wheeled Vehicles

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Cost-Benefit Analysis

• Economic evaluation of health and environmental
  interventions is important
• Quantification of impacts for health, crops,
  materials, social and economic factors
• Compare the effectiveness of one intervention
  against another
• Help policy makers allocate limited budget
• Demonstrates economic return of investments

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Cost-Benefit Analysis

• Direct impacts
• Tropospheric ozone formation that effects
• Public health
• Crops
• Materials
• Ecosystems
• Health impacts from primary and secondary
  pollutants
• Ecosystem acidification
• Damage to building and other materials

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Cost-Benefit Analysis

• Indirect impacts
• Changes in GHG emissions with controlled
  pollutant levels
• Social and economic effects from impacts and
  measures recommended for their control

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Cost-Benefit Analysis
Source Lewis J. Perl and Frederick C. Dunbar
Cost Effectiveness and Cost-Benefit Analysis of
Air Quality Regulations, Papers and Proceedings
of the Ninety-Fourth Annual Meeting of the
American Economic Association1982, Vol. 72, No. 2.
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Cost-Benefit Analysis
Source Lewis J. Perl and Frederick C. Dunbar
Cost Effectiveness and Cost-Benefit Analysis of
Air Quality Regulations, Papers and Proceedings
of the Ninety-Fourth Annual Meeting of the
American Economic Association1982, Vol. 72, No. 2.
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Risk Standards Based on Pollution

• The standards are established based on
• Potential public health impact
• Health hazard (chronic toxicity) and dose
  response information of a chemical

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Risk Standards Based on Pollution
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Clean Air Act amendments of 1970

• To protect human health and the air environment
• To establish a national research and development
  program to prevent and to control air pollution
• To provide federal assistance and leadership to
  state and local governments for air pollution
  programs
• To develop specific standards for hazardous air
  pollutants

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Clean Air Act amendments of 1970

• Important legal event in the US federal air
  pollution control field
• Creation of Environmental Protection Agency

Policy
HEW (prior to 1970) EPA (post 1970)
Primary emphasis on voluntary control conciliation education persuasion encourage and support state and local action Enactment and enforcement of effective pollution standards litigation fines injunctions jail terms
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Problem

• A power plant stack gas (SO2) at 440C contains
  2200 ppm. If the volume rate of gas emitted is
  15000 m3/min. What is the SO2 emission rate in
  kg/sec? The stack pressure is 1.0 bar.

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Solution

• Step1 Calculate density
• P ?RT
• ? P/RT
• Sp. Vol. a RT/P 0.926 m3/kg
• Step2 Calculate volume
• Vol. of SO2 emitted
  15000/60(m3/sec)220010-6
• 0.55 m3/sec
• Step3 Mass rate of emission Density Volume
• (0.55/a) (vol. of SO2 /a)
• 0.55/0.926
• 0.594 kg/sec

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Air Quality Criteria

• Expressions of the latest scientific knowledge
  based on the knowledge of experts.
• Describe the effects that can be expected to
  occur beyond "excedence" pollutant level for a
  specified time period.
• Miscellaneous
• Exposure
• Combination of pollutants etc

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Case for National Standards

• Unfair economic advantages (by state)
• Competition for lower standards.
• Federal Standards for
• automobiles
• aircraft
• industries supplying basic needs
• "New Source " performance standards
• Initial NSPS issued on December 23, 1971
• Steam Generators
• Portland Cement Plants
• Incinerators
• Nitric acid and H2SO4 plants

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Air Quality Control Regions

• AQCRs were developed in 1967.
• Basis Common meteorology, topography, and
  climate
• Ohio is divided in 14 AQCRs
• Toledo 124 AQCR Lucas and Wood counties

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Air Quality Control Regions in Ohio
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Air Quality Control Regions in New Mexico
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1973 Sierra Club vs. Ruckelshaus

• As a result of the Sierra Club case, the USEPA
  had to disapprove all implementation plans for
  not containing provisions for the
• Prevention of Significant Deterioration
  
• of existing air quality.

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Prevention Of Significant Deterioration

• Applies to new or modified sources constructed
  after March 19,1979.
• Potential emissions of 100 tons/year of any
  single pollutant, or a combined total of 250
  tons/year of all pollutants.
• Best available control technology (BACT) applies
  to all sources covered.
• In regions where ambient air quality standards
  are not being met, a new source is required to
  provide Emission Offsets.

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Prevention Of Significant Deterioration

• Class I This class covers pristine areas of the
  country and no change from current air quality
  will be allowed
• Class II Almost all other areas where moderate
  change in air quality will be allowed
• Class III Industrialized areas where substantial
  growth will be allowed, and where the increase in
  concentration of pollutants up to the federal
  standards will be insignificant

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PSD Increments
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Application of The PSD Increment
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National Emission Standards For Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAPS)

• Beryllium
• Mercury
• Vinyl Chloride
• Radio nuclides
• Benzene
• Asbestos
• Others Proposed

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Hazardous Waste Incinerators

• Incineration was an economic alternative to solve
  hazardous waste crisis.
• The NESHAP for hazardous waste combustors was
  developed in two phases.
• Phase I, September 30, 1999, addresses hazardous
  waste burning incinerators, cement kilns, and
  lightweight aggregate kilns.
• Phase II, September 14, 2005, Hazardous waste
  burning industrial boilers, process heaters, and
  hydrochloric acid production furnaces.

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National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants (NESHAPs)
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Number of persons living in counties with air
quality levels above the primary national ambient
air quality standards in 1985 ( based on 1980
population data)