The Inner Workings of a Climate Report: An Example

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The Inner Workings of a Climate ReportAn Example
Primary Source US Climate Change Science
Program (CCSP) Synthesis and Assessment Product
(SAP) 3-3 Weather and Climate Extremes in a
Changing Climate
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U.S. Climate Change Science ProgramSynthesis and
Assessment Product 3.3Weather and Climate
Extremes in a Changing Climate (North America,
Hawaii, Caribbean, and U.S. Pacific
Islands) Adapted from a Public Briefing
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AUTHOR TEAM FOR THIS REPORT
Preface Authors Thomas R. Karl, NOAA Gerald A.
Meehl, NCAR Christopher D. Miller, NOAA William
L. Murray, STG, Inc. Executive Summary Convening
Lead Authors Thomas R. Karl, NOAA Gerald A.
Meehl, NCAR Lead Authors Thomas C. Peterson,
NOAA Kenneth E. Kunkel, Univ. Ill.
Urbana-Champaign, Ill. State Water Survey
William J. Gutowski, Jr., Iowa State Univ.
David R. Easterling, NOAA Editors Susan J.
Hassol, STG, Inc. Christopher D. Miller, NOAA
William L. Murray, STG, Inc. Anne M. Waple, STG,
Inc.
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AUTHOR TEAM FOR THIS REPORT
Chapter 1 Convening Lead Author Thomas C.
Peterson, NOAA Lead Authors David M. Anderson,
NOAA Stewart J. Cohen, Environment Canada and
Univ. of British Columbia Miguel Cortez-Vázquez,
National Meteorological Service of Mexico
Richard J. Murnane, Bermuda Inst. of Ocean
Sciences Camille Parmesan, Univ. of Tex. at
Austin David Phillips, Environment Canada Roger
S. Pulwarty, NOAA John M.R. Stone, Carleton
Univ. Contributing Authors Tamara G. Houston,
NOAA Susan L. Cutter, Univ. of S.C. Melanie
Gall, Univ. of S.C. Chapter 2 Convening Lead
Author Kenneth E. Kunkel, Univ. Ill.
Urbana-Champaign, Ill. State Water Survey Lead
Authors Peter D. Bromirski, Scripps Inst.
Oceanography, UCSD Harold E. Brooks, NOAA
Tereza Cavazos, Centro de Investigación
Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada,
Mexico Arthur V. Douglas, Creighton Univ. David
R. Easterling, NOAA Kerry A. Emanuel, Mass.
Inst. Tech. Pavel Ya. Groisman, Univ. Corp.
Atmos. Res. Greg J. Holland, NCAR Thomas R.
Knutson, NOAA James P. Kossin, Univ. Wis.,
Madison, CIMSS Paul D. Komar, Oreg. State Univ.
David H. Levinson, NOAA Richard L. Smith, Univ.
N.C., Chapel Hill Contributing Authors Jonathan
C. Allan, Oreg. Dept. Geology and Mineral
Industries Raymond A. Assel, NOAA Stanley A.
Changnon, Univ. Ill. Urbana-Champaign, Ill. State
Water Survey Jay H. Lawrimore, NOAA Kam-biu
Liu, La. State Univ., Baton Rouge Thomas C.
Peterson, NOAA
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AUTHOR TEAM FOR THIS REPORT
Chapter 3 Convening Lead Author William J.
Gutowski, Jr., Iowa State Univ. Lead Authors
Gabriele C. Hegerl, Duke Univ. Greg J. Holland,
NCAR Thomas R. Knutson, NOAA Linda O. Mearns,
NCAR Ronald J. Stouffer, NOAA Peter J. Webster,
Ga. Inst. Tech. Michael F. Wehner, Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory Francis W. Zwiers,
Environment Canada Contributing Authors Harold
E. Brooks, NOAA Kerry A. Emanuel, Mass. Inst.
Tech. Paul D. Komar, Oreg. State Univ. James P.
Kossin, Univ. Wisc., Madison Kenneth E. Kunkel,
Univ. Ill. Urbana-Champaign, Ill. State Water
Survey Ruth McDonald, Met Office, United
Kingdom Gerald A. Meehl, NCAR Robert J. Trapp,
Purdue Univ. Chapter 4 Convening Lead Author
David R. Easterling, NOAA Lead Authors David M.
Anderson, NOAA Stewart J. Cohen, Environment
Canada and University of British Columbia
William J. Gutowski, Jr., Iowa State Univ. Greg
J. Holland, NCAR Kenneth E. Kunkel, Univ. Ill.
Urbana-Champaign, Ill. State Water Survey Thomas
C. Peterson, NOAA Roger S. Pulwarty, NOAA
Michael F. Wehner, Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory Appendix A Author Richard L. Smith,
Univ. N.C., Chapel Hill
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What Are Extremes and Why Do They Matter?

• SAP 3.3 follows IPCC convention (as rare,
  or rarer than, the top or bottom 10
  percentiles).
• All tornadoes and hurricanes are
  considered extreme.
• Small changes in averages for many variables
  resulting in larger changes in extremes.

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What Are Extremes and Why Do They Matter?

• Having impacts future changes associated
  with continued warming will present additional
  challenges.
• Impacts of extremes depend on degree of change
  in climate ecosystems and social vulnerability
• Extremes are a natural part of even a stable
  climate system.
• But on balance, because systems have adapted
  to their historical range of extremes, the
  majority of events outside this range have
  primarily negative impacts.

This graphic does not include losses that are
non-monetary, e.g., loss of life, biodiversity
etc.
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SYNOPSIS
Changes in extreme weather and climate events
have significanthuman impacts and are among the
most serious challenges to society in coping with
a changing climate.
Observed Changes
Many extremes and their associated impacts are
now changing. For example, in recent decades most
of North America has been experiencing more
unusually hot days and nights, fewer unusually
cold days and nights, and fewer frost days. Heavy
downpours have become more frequent and intense.
Droughts are becoming more severe in some
regions. The power and frequency of Atlantic
hurricanes have increased substantially in recent
decades though mainland land-falling hurricanes
do not appear to have increased over the past
century. Outside the tropics storm tracks are
shifting northward and the strongest storms are
becoming even stronger.
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SYNOPSIS
Global Attribution Studies
It is well established through formal attribution
studies that the global warming of the past 50
years is due primarily to human-induced increases
in heat trapping gasses.
North American Attribution Studies
Such studies have only recently been used to
determine the causes of some changes in extremes
at the scale of a continent. Certain aspects of
observed increases in temperature extremes have
been linked to human influences. The increase in
heavy precipitation events is associated with an
increase in water vapor, and the latter has been
attributed to human-induced warming. No formal
attribution studies for changes in drought
severity in North America have been attempted.
There is evidence suggesting a human contribution
to recent changes in hurricane activity as well
as in storms outside the tropics, though a
confident assessment will require further study.
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SYNOPSIS
Future Projections
In the future, with continued global warming,
heat waves and heavy downpours are projected to
further increase in frequency and
intensity. Substantial areas of North America are
likely to have more frequent droughts of greater
severity. Hurricane wind speeds, rainfall
intensity, and storm surge levels are projected
to increase. The strongest cold season storms are
likely to become more frequent, with stronger
winds and more extreme wave heights. Current and
future impacts resulting from these changes
depend not only on the changes in extremes, but
also on responses by human and natural systems.
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Temperature Extremes
Observed Changes

• Since the record hot year of 1998, six of the
  last ten years (1998-2007) have had annual
  average temperatures that fall in the hottest 10
  of all years on record for the U.S.
• Over recent decades ----
• Most of North America is experiencing more
  unusually hot days and nights. (since 1950
  best coverage)
• The number of heat waves (extended periods of
  extremely hot weather) has been increasing but,
  
• Heat waves of the 1930s (e.g., daytime
  temperatures) remain the most severe in the U.S.
  historical record.
• There have been fewer unusually cold days
  during the last few decades.
• The last 10 years have seen fewer severe cold
  waves than for any other 10-year period in the
  historical record, which dates back to 1895.
• There has been a decrease in frost days and a
  lengthening of the frost-free season.

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Precipitation Extremes
Observed Changes

• Heavy downpours have become more frequent and
  more intense in recent decades over most of
  North America and now account for a larger
  percentage of total precipitation.
• - Intense precipitation events (the
  heaviest 1) in the continental U.S.
  increased by 20 over the past century
  while total precipitation increased by 7.
• North American Monsoon
• - The season is beginning about 10 days
  later than usual in Mexico. - In
  SW there are fewer rain events, but the events
  are more intense.

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Drought Extremes
Observed Changes

• In North America the most severe droughts
  occurred in the 1930s. There is no indication
  of an overall trend in the observational record
  (dates back to 1895).
• In Mexico and the U.S. SW, the 1950s were the
  driest period, though droughts in the past 10
  years now rival the 1950s drought.

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STORMS HURRICANES
Observed Changes

• Atlantic
• Tropical storm (TC) PDI has increased since
  1970 in association with higher Atlantic SSTs
  and likely since 1950s.
• It is likely that the annual numbers of TCs in
  the North Atlantic has increased over the past
  100 years, a time in which Atlantic SSTs also
  increased. The evidence is not compelling for
  significant trends beginning in the late 1800s.
• Data uncertainty increases as one proceeds back
  in time
• No trend in US land-falling hurricane counts
• In recent decades during summer and early
  autumn extreme wave heights have increased in
  the Coastal Atlantic States attributed to the
  recent increase in Atlantic Hurricanes.
• Pacific
• Hurricane intensity in the eastern Pacific has
  decreased since 1980. Coastal station
  observations show that rainfall from hurricanes
  has nearly doubled since 1950, in part due to
  slower moving storms.

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STORMS HURRICANES
Attribution of Changes

• It is very likely that the human induced
  increase in greenhouse gases has contributed to
  the increase in SSTs in the hurricane formation
  regions.
• There is a strong statistical connection
  between tropical Atlantic SSTs and Atlantic
  hurricane activity.
• This evidence suggests a substantial
  human contribution to recent hurricane activity.
  
• However, a confident assessment of human
  influence on hurricanes will require further
  studies with models and observations.

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STORMS HURRICANES
Projected Changes

• It is likely that hurricane rainfall and wind
  speeds will increase in response to
  human-caused warming.
• For each 1ºC increase in tropical sea surface
  temperatures, core rainfall rates will increase
  by 6-18.
• Surface wind speeds of the strongest hurricanes
  will increase by about 1-8.

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Other Storms
Observed Changes

• Extra-tropical Storms
• There has been a northward shift in the tracks
  of strong low-pressure systems in the past 50
  years.
• - In the North Pacific, the strongest
  storms are becoming even stronger.
• - Evidence in the Atlantic is insufficient
  to draw a conclusion about changes in storm
  strength.
• Increases in extreme wave heights have been
  observed along the Pacific Northwest coast of
  North America (3 decades of buoy data) and are
  likely a reflection of changes in cold season
  storm tracks.

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Other Storms
Other Storms
Observed Changes

• Snowstorms
• Over the 20th century, there has been
  considerable decade-to-decade variability in the
  frequency of snow storms (6 inches or more) and
  ice storms.
• There has been a northward shift in snow storm
  occurrence, and this shift, combined with
  higher temperature, is consistent with a
  decrease in snow cover extent over the U.S.
• In northern Canada, there has also been an
  observed increase in heavy snow over the same
  time period.
• Changes in heavy snow events in southern Canada
  are dominated by decade to decade variability.

• Local Severe Weather
• The data used to examine changes in the
  frequency and severity of tornadoes and severe
  thunderstorms are inadequate to make definitive
  statements about actual changes.

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Key priorities for improving our understanding of
climate and weather extremes in a changing
climate
1. The continued development and maintenance of
high quality climate observing systems will
improve our ability to monitor and detect future
changes in climate extremes. 2. Efforts to
digitize, homogenize, and analyze long-term
observations in the instrumental record with
multiple independent experts and analyses improve
our confidence in detecting past changes in
climate extremes. 3. Weather observing systems
adhering to standards of observation consistent
with the needs of both the climate and the
weather research communities improve our ability
to detect observed changes in climate
extremes. 4. Extended reconstructions of past
climate using weather models initialized with
homogenous surface observations would help
improve our understanding of strong
extra-tropical cyclones and other aspects of
climate variability.
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Key priorities for improving our understanding of
climate and weather extremes in a changing
climate
5. The creation of annually-resolved,
regional-scale reconstructions of the climate for
the past 2,000 years would help improve our
understanding of very long-term regional climate
variability. 6. Improvements in our
understanding of the mechanisms that govern
hurricane intensity would lead to better
short-and long-term predictive capabilities. 7.
Establishing a globally-consistent wind
definition for determining hurricane intensity
would allow for more consistent comparisons
across the globe. 8. Improvements in the ability
of climate models to recreate the recent past as
well as make projections under a variety of
forcing scenarios are dependent on access to both
computational and human resources.
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Key priorities for improving our understanding of
climate and weather extremes in a changing
climate
9. More extensive access to high temporal
resolution data (daily, hourly) from climate
model simulations both of the past and for the
future would allow for improved understanding of
potential changes in weather and climate
extremes. 10. Research should focus on the
development of a better understanding of the
physical processes that produce extremes and how
these processes change with climate. 11.
Enhanced communication between the climate
science community and those who make
climate-sensitive decisions would strengthen our
understanding of climate extremes and their
impacts. 12. A reliable database on damage
costs, associated with extreme weather and
climate events, and how best to account for
changing socioeconomic conditions, including
adaptation over time, would improve our
understanding of losses associated with climate
extremes.
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The Inner Workings of a Climate ReportExtra
Slides
Primary Source US Climate Change Science
Program (CCSP) Synthesis and Assessment Product
(SAP) 3-3 Weather and Climate Extremes in a
Changing Climate
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Comparison of IPCC AR4 CCSP 3.3 Extremes
Black text IPCC
Red text CCSP SAP 3.3
Phenomenon and direction of trend Likelihood that trend occurred in late 20th century (typically post 1960) and global Likelihood of a human contribution to observed trend Likelihood of future trends based on projections for 21st century using SRES scenarios
Warmer and fewer cold days and nights over most land areas Very likely Likely Virtually certain
Warmer and fewer cold days and nights over most land areas Last 10 years lower numbers of severe cold waves than any other 10-year period Fewer frosts, lengthening freeze-free period Very likely
Warmer days and more frequent hot days and nights over most land areas Very likely Likely (nights) Virtually certain
Warmer days and more frequent hot days and nights over most land areas Most of N. America since 1950Warm nights, days comparable to 1930s in some states LikelySome aspects Very Likely
Warm spells/heat waves. Frequency increases over most land areas Likely More likely than not Very likely
Warm spells/heat waves. Frequency increases over most land areas Primarily NW two thirds of North America Likely certain aspects, e.g., night-time temperatures record high annual temps Very Likely
Heavy precipitation events. Frequency (or proportion of total rainfall from heavy falls) increases over most areas Likely More likely than not Very likely
Heavy precipitation events. Frequency (or proportion of total rainfall from heavy falls) increases over most areas Virtually Certain Triple attribution Linked via water vapor increases Linked to global warming Linked to greenhouse effects Very likely
Area affected by droughts increases Likely in many regions since 1970 No formal attribution - evidence for linkage between SST patterns and 1930s 1950s drought Likely
Area affected by droughts increases No overall trend for U.S., but regional trends evident (more precip offsets temp increase in most areas) No formal attribution studies. Evidence that 1930s 1950s drought linked to SST patterns Likely in SW North America
Intense tropical cyclone activity increases Likely in many regions since 1970 More likely than not Likely
Intense tropical cyclone activity increases North Atlantic since 1970Likely N. Atlantic since 1950 Likely Decrease in Eastern Pacific (Mexico West Coast) since 1980 Double attribution issue. Evidence for substantial human influence on SST. Confident linkage to hurricanes not possible. Requires more study. Likely
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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Temperature Extremes
Attribution of Changes

• Human-induced warming has likely caused much
  of the average temperature increase in North
  America over the past 50 years and,
  consequently, changes in temperature extremes.
  For example - The effect of
  human-induced emissions of greenhouse
  gases has been associated with the
  very hot year of 2006 in the U.S.

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Temperature Extremes
Projected Changes

• Abnormally hot days and nights and heat waves
  are very likely to become more frequent.
• Cold days and cold nights are very likely to
  become much less frequent.
• The number of days with frost is very likely
  to decrease.
• Increase in the percent of days in a year over
  North America in which the daily low
  temperature is unusually warm (falling in the
  top 10 of annual daily lows).
• Sea ice extent is expected to continue to
  decrease increasing extreme episodes of coastal
  erosion in Arctic Alaska and Canada.

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Precipitation Extremes
Attribution of Changes

• The increase in precipitation intensity is
  consistent with the observed increases in
  atmospheric water vapor (linked to human-
  induced increases in greenhouse gases).

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Precipitation Extremes
Projected Changes

• On average, precipitation is likely to be
  less frequent but more intense.
• Precipitation extremes are very likely to
  increase.
• For a mid-range emission scenario, daily
  precipitation so heavy that it now occurs only
  once every 20 years is projected to occur every
  eight years or so by the end of this century
  over much of Eastern North America.

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Precipitation Extremes
Projected Changes

• The lightest precipitation is projected to
  decrease.
• The heaviest precipitation is projected to
  increase strongly.
• Higher greenhouse gas emission scenarios
  produce larger changes in extreme
  precipitation.

High Emission Scenario Middle Emission
Scenario Low Emission Scenario
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Drought Extremes
Attribution of Changes

• No formal attribution studies for greenhouse
  warming and changes in drought severity in
  North America have been attempted.
• Upward trend in temperature has made a
  substantial contribution to drought severity
  where precipitation has decreased or had little
  change
• The location and severity of droughts are
  affected by the spatial pattern of sea surface
  temperatures. This appears to have been a
  factor in the droughts of the 1930s and 1950s.

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Drought Extremes
Projected Changes

• A contributing factor to drought severity
  is higher air temperatures increasing the
  potential for evaporation.
• It is likely that droughts will become more
  severe in the southwestern U.S. and parts of
  Mexico.

Photo Credit Brad Udall

• In other places where precipitation increases
  cannot keep pace with increased evaporation,
  droughts are also likely to become more severe.
• It is likely that droughts will continue to be
  exacerbated by earlier and possibly lower
  spring snowmelt run-off in the mountainous
  West.

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Other Storms
Attribution and Projected Changes

• Human influences on changes in sea-level
  pressure patterns have been detected over the
  N.H. and this affects the location and intensity
  of storms.

• There are likely to be more frequent deep
  low-pressure systems (strong storms) outside the
  tropics, with stronger winds and more extreme
  wave heights.

Projected changes in intense low pressure systems
(strong storms) during the cold season for the
N.H. for various emission scenarios.