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Title: Hong Kong Institute of Educational Research


1
Hong Kong Institute of Educational
Research MCL6224 Issues in the Development
of Liberal Studies
2
Levels of Development in Liberal Studies as a NSS
School Subject in HKSAR
  • Development of Liberal Studies as an educational
    idea
  • Development of Liberal Studies as a curriculum in
    NSS education in HKSAR
  • Development of Liberal Studies as a pedagogical
    approach in NSS education in HKSAR
  • Development of Liberal Studies as policy measure
    to be implemented in HK school organization
  • Development of Liberal Studies as a school
    subject within the curricular structure within HK
    school organization
  • Development of Liberal Studies as
    classroom-instruction practice in HK school
    organization

3
MCL6224 Issue in the Development of Liberal
Lecture 1 Development of the Idea of Liberal
Education into the 21st Century
4
Understanding the Meanings of Liberal Studies in
HKSAR
  • The myth of Liberal Studies in language game of
    HKSAR education reform (2004)
  • Liberal Studies as the panacea of education in
    knowledge society

5
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6
Understanding the Meanings of Liberal Studies in
HKSAR
  • The myth of Liberal Studies in language game of
    HKSAR education reform
  • Liberal Studies as the panacea of education in
    knowledge society
  • Liberal Studies as disaster in HKSAR education
    reform

7
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8
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9
  • ???
  • 2009?02?19? (??)
  • ????,?????????????????,??????????????,??? Liberal
    Education,????????????????,?????????????????(
    Education that enlarges and disciplines the mind
    and makes it master of its own powers,
    irrespective of the particular business or
    profession one may follow.)

10
Understanding the Meanings of Liberal Studies in
HKSAR
  • Confusion of connotations of liberal studies
  • Liberal Studies
  • Liberal education
  • General Education
  • Liberal Arts Education

11
Liberal Education in the Pre-Modern Age
12
Liberal Education in the Pre-Modern Age
  • The origins of liberal education can be traced to
    the Ancient Greece in B.C.
  • Liberal art (artes liberalis in Greek) was
    understood as an education ideal underlining the
    idea of liberalis in Greek. It means relating to
    freedom or fitted for freedom.
  • Accordingly, liberal art education was understood
    as education for free citizens in the
    city-state of Ancient Greece.
  • However, in the political context of the Ancient
    Greece, which was built on a social system of
    slavery, liberal art education was in fact simply
    meant education of free citizens with leisure to
    study (Kimball, 1986, p.14)

13
Liberal Education in the Pre-Modern Age
  • The origins of liberal education can be traced to
    the Ancient Greece in B.C.
  • Nevertheless, the idea of liberal arts education
    found in the writings of Plato and Aristotle
    carries a more profound meaning. It signifies the
    educational ideal that it is an education to free
    individuals rather than simply education for
    eligible free individuals.
  • Plato, following Socrates' teaching, saw
    "knowledge leads directly to virtue." He viewed
    liberal art education as "an endeavor that
    liberates the mind from chains of its shadowy
    cave of ignorance." (Kimball, 1986, p. 17)
  • While Plato's student Aristotle sees liberal arts
    education as a means to elevate human minds to
    self-reflective level. He underlines that the
    unexamined life is not worth living for human
    being. (Aristotle, quoted in Nussbaum, 1997, p.
    8)

14
The Trial of Socrates
15
Platos School of Athens
16
Plato and Aristotle
17
Liberal Education in the Pre-Modern Age
  • The idea of trivium and quadrium in 5th and 6th
    century
  • During the Roman Empire in 5th to sixth century,
    liberal arts education indicated a curriculum
    consisted of seven arts. They can further be
    divided into trivium and quadrivium
  • Trivium was made up of grammar, logic and
    rhetoric. They constituted the lower division of
    university studies in the Middle Age
  • Quadrivium composed arithmetic, geometry, music
    and astronomy. They constituted the upper
    division of university studies in the Middle Age.
  • Nevertheless, liberal arts education in this
    period was still confined to be education for the
    eligible few, i.e. Roman citizens.

18
Liberal Education in the Pre-Modern Age
  • After the fall of Roman Empire and the Barbarian
    invasion to Rome, the Romans idea of liberal art
    education of trivium and quadrivium came
    under the domination of Christianity or more
    specifically the Catholic Church in the Middle
    Ages from the sixth to sixteenth centuries.
    (Lawton and Gordon, 2002) University of Bologna
    was founded in the twelfth century. It was soon
    followed by such place as Paris, Oxford and
    Cambridge. However, these early universities
    "were developed as a response to the need for
    institutions to educate priests and monks."
    (Lawton and Gordon, 2002, p. 51-52)

19
Liberal Education in the Pre-Modern Age
  • The humanist of the Renaissance and the scientist
    of the Scientific Revolution in the sixteenth and
    seventeenth century respectively broke the
    pursuit of knowledge away from the domination of
    the Christianity worldview.
  • The movement of Renaissance humanism can be
    represented by Pico della Mirandola famous text
    entitled Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) in
    which he emphasized the genius of man ... the
    unique and extraordinary ability of the human
    mind.

20
Liberal Education in the Pre-Modern Age
  • The humanist of the Renaissance and the scientist
    of the Scientific Revolution in the sixteenth and
    seventeenth century respectively broke the
    pursuit of knowledge away from the domination of
    the Christianity worldview.
  • The movement of Scientific Revolution can of
    course be signified by Galileo Galilei and Isaac
    Newton and their work. More specifically, it is
    Galilie conflict with the Catholic Church, which
    finally came down to the trial by the Inquisition
    in Rome in 1633, that signifies the liberation of
    scientific mind from the Christian doctrine,
    which subsequently brought about the movement of
    the Enlightenment and the advent of the Modern
    Age.

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24
Liberal Education in the Modern Age The
Enlightenment
  • The idea of the Enlightenment
  • According to Immanuel Kants definition,
    "Enlightenment is man's release from his
    self-incurred tutelage. Tutelage is man's
    inability to make use of his understanding
    without direction from another. Self-incurred is
    this tutelage when its cause lies not in lack of
    reason but in lack of resolution and courage to
    use it without direction from another. Sapere
    aude (Dare to know)! 'Have courage to use your
    own reason!' - that is the motto of
    enlightenment." (Kant, 1959/1784, p. 85)
  • Kant, I. (1959/1784) What is
    Enlightenment. Pp. 85-92. In I. Kant.
    Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals.
    Indianapolis Bobbs-Merrill.

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26
Liberal Education in the Modern Age The
Enlightenment
  • The idea of the Enlightenment
  • At individual level, enlightened individual is a
    'scholar' who possesses the mindset with "the
    propensity and vocation to free thinking" (Kant,
    1996/1784, p. 92) and the ability "to make public
    use of one's reason at every point." (Kant,
    1959/1784, p.87)
  • At societal level, enlightened social
    institutions should be structured in a way to
    guarantee "the freedom to make public use of
    one's reason" (p. 87) that is to "let every
    citizen make his comments freely and publicly,
    i.e., through writing, on the erroneous aspects
    of the present institution." (p. 89)
  • These institutions must submit themselves to
    be "subject to doubt before the public." (p.90)

27
Liberal Education in the Modern Age The
Enlightenment
  • The idea of the Enlightenment
  • In connection to ideal of the Enlightenment,
    liberal education in the 18th century took on an
    egalitarian meaning. It is the liberating and
    enlightening education for all human being and
    every human being is entitled to the "reasoning
    power."

28
Liberal Education in the Modern Age The
Enlightenment
  • The idea of the project of modernity
  • Jürgen Habermas' formulation of the project
    of modernity as collective efforts of human
    kinds, especially those in Europe in the 18th
    century bearing the consequences of
  • Habermas, Jurgen (1981) Modernity versus
    Postmodernity. New German Critique 22 3-14.

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30
Liberal Education in the Modern Age The
Enlightenment
  • The idea of the project of modernity
  • Differentiating the holistic reason of religion
    and metaphysics of Christianity in Europe before
    the 18th century into autonomous spheres of
    science, morality and art in the Modern Times
  • Constituting of separate areas of inquiry
    Knowledge and truth, justice and moral-rightness,
    and taste, authenticity and beauty
  • Developing of the cognitive-instrumental,
    moral-practical and aesthetic-expressive
    rationalities
  • Institutionalizing of domains of culture
    scientific-inquiry discourse, theories of moral
    and jurisprudence, and production and criticism
    of art.

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Liberal Education in the Modern Age The
Enlightenment
  • Liberal education as part of the project of
    modernity
  • It is in the context of modernity that
    liberal education invokes it modern meanings
  • To liberate human mind from religion and
    superstition and lead it into scientific
    reasoning and practice
  • To liberate human mind from social and political
    tutelage and suppression and lead it into
    democratic reasoning and practice
  • To liberate human mind from aesthetic domination
    and hegemony and lead it into free and creative
    expressions of self
  • However, the separation and division of human
    reason into separate domains and then
    institutions have sowed the seed of the
    degradation of the liberal education ideal in
    modern schooling system in the twenty century

33
Liberal Education in Industrial Society
  • Max Weber's thesis of rationalization of
    education and training
  • Industrialization and bureaucratization elicit
    complex division of labor in production process
  • Compartmentalization of skills and knowledge
  • System of knowledge was divided into separate
    disciplines
  • Constitution of regular curricula and
    standardized examination within each discipline

34
Liberal Education in Industrial Society
  • With the establishment of the University of
    Berlin in 1809 and its reorientation of the
    mission of university from teaching of Christian
    doctrine or established knowledge to scientific
    research and pursuit of new knowledge, the
    mind-liberating tradition of liberal art
    education found its retrieval in university
    education first in German and then in the US.

35
Liberal Education in Industrial Society
  • As U.S. universities, most notably Harvard,
    re-oriented their missions from the Oxbridge
    tradition of teaching of the Classics to the free
    pursuit of scientific knowledge, the
    single-standard curriculum for undergraduate
    study instituted in liberal art colleges in the
    U.S. was to be compartmentalized into
    specialties, streams and departments.

36
Liberal Education in Industrial Society
  • Charles W. Eliot president of Harvard from 1869
    to1909 introduce the idea of free electives to
    the undergraduate curriculum of the university.
    As a result, the range of courses offered was
    greatly expanded and schools and departments
    facilitating specializations were established in
    vast scale and speed. As for undergraduate
    students, they were permitted to choose freely
    from these vast varieties of systems of knowledge.

37
Liberal Education in Industrial Society
  • As Abbott L. Lowell replaced Eliot to be the
    president of Harvard in 1909, the free-elective
    system was replaced by the academic-major system.
    As a result, major-concentration curriculum has
    become the dominant mode of study in
    undergraduate programs not only the U.S. but
    around the world.

38
The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • As World War II came to an end, confronted by
    devastating effects of the Nazism of Germany,
    Fascism of Italy, and militarism of Japan,
    educators especially university educators were
    forced to reflect on the appropriateness of the
    education and knowledge that they felt fit to
    inculcate into the young generations. One of such
    reflection was to look hard into the curriculum
    of major-concentrated, specialized,
    professionalized, vocationalized and to some
    extent instrumentalized mode of study in most of
    the undergraduate programs in universities.

39
The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • The Harvard Committees (HC) idea of General
    Education in a Free Society (1945) (HC Report)
    and its effort to reconcile the emerging conflict
    between disciplinary-knowledge and liberal
    education.
  • HC Report defines the general education as the
    modernized version of liberal education and the
    main difference between them is that general
    education attempts to universalize the
    liberal-education ideal to all citizens in a
    democratic society.

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The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • General Education in a Free Society (1945)
  • Clearly, general education has somewhat the
    meaning of liberal education, except that, by
    applying to high school as to college. If one
    cling to the root meaning of liberal as that
    which befits or helps to make free men, then
    general and liberal education have identical
    goals. (HC, 1945, p.52) However, in order to
    universalize the ideal of liberal education in
    modern democratic society, educators are
    confronted by the structural contradiction
    between general and special education.

42
The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • General Education in a Free Society (1945)
  • The task of modern democracy is to preserve the
    ancient ideal of liberal education and to extend
    it as far as possible to all members of the
    community. To believe in the equality of human
    beings is to believe that the good life, and the
    education which trains the citizen for the good
    life, are equally the privilege of all. And these
    are the touchstones of the liberated man
  • First, is he free that is to say, is able to
    judge and plan for himself, so that he can truly
    govern himself? In order to do this, his must be
    a mind capable of self-criticism he must lead
    that self-examined life which according to
    Socrates is alone worthy of a free man. Thus he
    will possess in inner freedom, as well as social
    freedom.

43
The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • General Education in a Free Society (1945)
  • And these are the touchstones of the liberated
    man
  • Second, is he universal in his motives and
    sympathies? For the civilized man is a citizen of
    the entire universe he has overcome
    provincialism, he is objective, and is a
    spectator of all time and all existence. Surely
    these two are the very aims of democracy itself.
    (HC, 1945, p. 53)

44
The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • General Education in a Free Society (1945)
  • We are living in an age of specialism.
    Specialism is the means for advancement in our
    mobile social structure yet we must envisage the
    fact that a society controlled wholly by
    specialists is not a wisely ordered society. We
    cannot, however, turn away from specialism. The
    problem is how to save general education and its
    values within a system where specialism is
    necessary. (HC, 1945, p. 53)

45
The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • General Education in a Free Society (1945)
  • Specialism enhances the centrifugal forces in
    society. The business of providing for the needs
    of society breeds a great diversity of special
    occupations, and a given specialist does not
    speak the language of the other specialists. In
    order to discharge his duties as a citizen
    adequately, a person must somehow be able to
    grasp the complexities of life as a whole. .
  • Our conclusion, then, is that the aim of
    education should be to prepare an individual to
    become an expert both in some particular vocation
    or art and in the general art of the free man and
    the citizen. Thus the two kinds of education once
    given separately to different social class must
    be given together to all alike. (HC, 1945, p.
    53-54)

46
The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • General Education in a Free Society (1945)
  • Accordingly, the HC identifies four
    characteristics which they think are essential
    traits for the liberated mind of citizens in
    democratic society (HC, 1945, Pp. 64-87)
  • Effective thinking It consists of the ability of
    logical thinking, relational thinking and
    imaginative thinking
  • Effective communication The effective
    communication depends on the possession not only
    of skills such as clear thinking and cogent
    expression but of moral qualities as well, such
    as candor. (HC, 1945, p. 68)

47
The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • General Education in a Free Society (1945)
  • essential traits for the liberated mind of
    citizens in democratic society (HC, 1945, Pp.
    64-87)
  • Making of relevant judgments The aptitude of
    making relevant judgment cannot be developed by
    theoretical teaching being an art, it comes from
    example, practice, and habituation. The teacher
    can do a great deal nonetheless he can relate
    theoretical content to thee students life at
    every feasible point, and he can deliberately
    stimulate in the classroom situations from life.
    Finally, he can bring concrete reports of actual
    cases for discussion with the students. The
    essential thing is that the teacher should be
    constantly aware of the ultimate objectives,
    never letting means obscure ends, and be
    persistent in directing the attention to the
    student from the symbols to the things they
    symbolize. (HC, 1945, p. 71)

48
The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • General Education in a Free Society (1945)
  • essential traits for the liberated mind of
    citizens in democratic society (HC, 1945, Pp.
    64-87)
  • Discrimination among values The ability to
    discriminate in choosing covers not only
    awareness of different kinds of values but of
    their relations, including a sense of relative
    importance and of the mutual dependence of means
    and ends. (HC, 1945, p. 71)

49
The post-WWII Reform of General Education in
U.S. Universities
  • Similarly, two other universities in the US had
    also produced substantive reports on reforms of
    their general education curriculum, namely the
    University of Chicago (1950) The Idea and
    Practice of General Education and Columbia
    University (1966) The Reforming of General
    Education.

50
Debates and Reflection on Western Civilization
in General Education in US higher education
  • The debate on the required course of Western
    civilization in Stanford University in the 1980s
  • The issue of the Core Reading List for the
    year-long required course Western Civilization

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Ideas of Liberal Education in Historical Context
  • The debate on the required course of Western
    civilization in Stanford University in the 1980s
  • The issue of the Core Reading List for the
    year-long required course on Western Civilization
  • The list was criticized as ethnocentric in
    several terms, i.e. Eurocentric, male-centric and
    Christian-centric.
  • The outcome of the debate is the input of
    sensitivity and reflectivity to multiculturalism
    into the curriculum of nurturing liberated minds

53
Ideas of Liberal Education in Historical Context
  • The debate on the required course of Western
    civilization in Stanford University in the 1980s
  • Accordingly, Martha C. Nussbaum (1997) redefined
    the trait of the liberated mind into
  • Critical self-examination The capacity for
    critical examination of oneself and ones
    traditions. (p. 9)
  • World citizen An ability to see themselves not
    simply as citizens of some local region and group
    but also, and above all, as human being bound to
    all other human beings by ties of recognition and
    concern. (p.10)
  • Narrative imagination The ability to think what
    it might be like to be in the shoes of a person
    different from oneself, to be an intelligent
    reader of that persons story, and to understand
    the emotions and wish and desires that someone so
    placed might be. (p. 10-11) In other words, it
    is the ability of sympathetic understand and
    sympathetic imagination.

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Ideas of Liberal Education in Historical Context
  • Donald N. Levine reinstates the aim and value of
    liberal education in the 21st century in his book
    Powers of the Mind The Reinvention of Liberal
    Learning in American.
  • Modernity revolution and its effects
  • Reform agenda of liberal education

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Liberal Education in 21st Century
  • Donald N. Levine in his book Powers of the Mind
    The Reinvention of Liberal Learning in American,
  • Reform agenda of liberal education

58
Ideas of Liberal Education in Historical Context
  • In retrospect, three conflicting themes seem to
    emerge from the efforts on reforming ideas of
    liberal education and the curriculum of general
    education in US universities from post-WWII era
    to the end of the twentieth century. They are
  • Elitism vs. universalism Liberating the minds of
    a selected few or those of the general public and
    structural contradiction between slave or federal
    society and free society
  • General education vs. specialized education
    Structural contradiction between gentry and
    literati education in agrarian society and
    specialist education in industrial society
  • Ethno-cultural and nationalistic education vs.
    multicultural and cosmopolitan education
    Structural contradiction between nationalistic
    ethno-cultural education and global multicultural
    education

59
Liberal Education in the 21st Century
60
Liberal Education in the 21st Century
  • Definition of the problem
  • Four trends have changed the problem of
    liberal education beyond recognition in recent
    decades
  • knowledge is growing so rapidly and
    uncontrollably that the very idea of an
    all-round (or general) education is coming to
    seem unfeasible
  • nonetheless, it seems increasingly obvious that
    knowledge skills of some kind are essential in a
    society where knowledge work has become the
    most productive and highly remunerated kind of
    work
  • moreover, it seems clear that these knowledge
    skills, whatever they are, cant be confined to
    an elite, but must be imparted to everyone

61
Liberal Education in the 21st Century
  • Definition of the problem
  • Four trends have changed the problem of
    liberal education beyond recognition in recent
    decades
  • in a pluralist society, the old classical model
    of learning knowledge skills (illustrated for
    example by European elite education) is
    challenged by some groups in society who reject
    the culture in which such education has been
    embedded. (Smith, 2002, p. 1)

62
Liberal Education in the 21st Century
  • Redefinition of the educated and liberated mind
  • Educated mind is perceived as container of
    educational knowledge and liberated mind as
    container of liberating knowledge
  • Following the development of cognitive science,
    mind is perceived as network processing
    knowledge, information and data
  • Liberal education, especially in the knowledge
    age and/or society, is defined as an effort of
    enculturation into what Karl Popper termed World
    3.

63
Liberal Education in the 21st Century
  • Redefinition of the educated and liberated mind
  • According to Poppers classification
  • World 1 consists of the knowledge of the physical
    world
  • World 2 consists of the knowledge of the
    subjective and mental world
  • World 3 is the world of ideas. It consists of
    immaterial knowledge objects that can be
    discussed, modified, replaced and so on.
    (Bereiter, 2002, p.27) It consists of the
    discussible proposition or declarative knowledge
    ??theories, conjectures, problem formulations,
    historical accounts, interpretations, proofs,
    criticism, and the like. (Bereiter, 2002, p. 29)
    It basically coincides with the conception of
    meta-cognitive knowledge or knowledge of
    intentional cognition. More generally speaking,
    it is the knowledge of knowledge-building and
    knowledgability.

64
Metacognition and Knowledgeability
  • Conception of metacognition
  • Flavell defines metacognition as ones knowledge
    concerning ones own cognitive processes and
    products (1976, quoted in Son and Schwartz,
    2002, P.16)
  • Hacker defines the concept of metacognition as
    thinking about ones own thoughts. This thinking
    can be of what know (i.e. metacognitive
    knowledge), what one is currently doing (i.e.
    metacognitive skill), or what ones current
    cognitive and affective state is (i.e.
    metacognitive experience). . Metacognition
    sometimes has been defined simply as thinking
    about thinking, cognition of cognition, or using
    Flavalls (1979) word, knowledge and cognition
    about cognitive phenomena. (Hacker, 1998, p. 1)

http//logic.itsc.cuhk.edu.hk/b885764/Metacogniti
on2.html
65
Metacognition and Knowledgeability
  • Conception of metacognition
  • Nelson and Narens model of metacognition
  • Levels of cognition
  • Object-level cognition
  • Meta-level cognition
  • Process of metacognition
  • Monitoring
  • Control

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Object-Levels
Mentalevels
68
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • 1. Basil Bernsteins
  • Framework of School Curriculum

69
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Formal educational knowledge can be considered
    to be realized through three message systems
    curriculum, pedagogy and evaluation. Curriculum
    defined what counts as valid knowledge, pedagogy
    defines what counts as a valid transmission of
    knowledge, and evaluation defines what counts as
    a valid realization of this knowledge on the part
    of the taught. (Bernstein, 1971, p.47)

70
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • How a society selects, classifies, distributes,
    transmits and evaluates the educational knowledge
    it considers to be public, reflects both the
    distribution of power and the principles of
    social control. From this point of view,
    differences within and changes in the
    organization, transmission and evaluation of
    educational knowledge should be a major area of
    sociological interest. (Bernstein, 1971, p.47)

71
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Understanding the educational knowledge code of
    curricula in secondary education
  • Classification According to Bernstein's
    formulation, classification refers the
    relationships between contents. Where
    classification is strong, contents are well
    insulated from each other by strong boundaries.
    Where classification is weak, there is reduced
    insulation between contents for the boundaries
    between contents are weak or blurred." (p. 49)
  • For example, relationships between
    subject-contents in HKCEE and HKALE, such as
    physics, chemistry, biology, economics, and
    history, are insulated from each others and also
    insulated into science or humanities streams.
    Therefore, they can be perceived as organized in
    "strong classification.

72
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Understanding the educational knowledge code of
    curricula in secondary education
  • Frame "The concept of frame is used to determine
    the structure of the message system pedagogy.
    Frame refers to the form of the context in which
    knowledge is transmitted and received. Frame
    refers to specific pedagogical relationship of
    teacher and taught. Where framing is strong
    there is sharp boundary, where framing is weak a
    blurred boundary, between what may be and what
    may not be transmitted. Frame refers us to the
    range of options available to teacher and taught
    in the control of what is transmitted and
    received in the context of the pedagogical
    relationship." (p.50)

73
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Understanding the educational knowledge code of
    curricula in secondary education
  • For example, the pedagogical relationships
    between teachers and taught much stronger in
    science subjects such as physics, chemistry, and
    biology than that in Liberal Studies. In Liberal
    Studies, the pedagogical relationships are
    characterized as "Issue Inquiry Approach" in
    which both teachers and taught enjoy much greater
    control on what can be or cannot be included.

74
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Understanding the educational knowledge code
  • Educational knowledge code It "refers to the
    underlying principles that shape curriculum,
    pedagogy, and evaluation. The form this code
    takes depends upon social principles which
    regulate the classification and framing of
    knowledge made public in educational
    institution." (p. 47-48)

75
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Understanding the educational knowledge code
  • Bernstien further differentiates educational
    knowledge code into two types
  • Collection code It refers to the organization
    of educational knowledge that involves strong
    classification in relationships between
    curriculum-contents (p.51). It further gives rise
    to strong frame in the pedagogical relationships
    between teacher and taught. Finally it will most
    probably entail the evaluative system places an
    emphasis upon attaining states of knowing rather
    than ways of knowing. (p. 57) In this kind of
    examination, the examinees are only required to
    recall specific sets of knowledge and information
    rather than to demonstrate ways of knowing.

76
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Understanding the educational knowledge code
  • Bernstien further differentiates educational
    knowledge code into two types
  • Collection code Within the collection code of
    educational knowledge, there constitutes
    particular kinds of power relationship and
    identity.
  • The power relationships constituted in the three
    message systems are hierarchical and rigid.
    Occupants in the subordinate levels, such as the
    pupils, are under tight if not complete control
    from superior levels. The stronger the
    classification and the framing, the more the
    educational relationship tends to be hierarchical
    and ritualized and the pupil seen as ignorant,
    with little status and few rights. (p. 58)
  • Within this type of educational knowledge, the
    identities of the participants, such as those of
    the teacher and taught, are definite, strong or
    even rigid. They basically command a kind of
    subject loyalty in their pupils as well as
    teachers. (p.55)

77
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Understanding the educational knowledge code
  • Bernstien further differentiates educational
    knowledge code into two types
  • Integrative code It refers to the organization
    of educational knowledge that involves a marked
    attempt to reduce the strength of
    classification. (p.51) In other word,
    integrative code refers to educational knowledge
    in which the relationship between
    curriculum-contents are relative weak. It may
    subsequently give rise to weak frame in
    pedagogical relationship. Finally, the evaluative
    system within the integrative code is most likely
    to emphasize ways of knowing rather than
    require examinees to demonstrate definite sets of
    information and states of knowing.

78
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Understanding the educational knowledge code
  • Bernstien further differentiates educational
    knowledge code into two types
  • As a result, the power relationships and identity
    constituted under the integrative code are most
    likely to be in contrast to those in collection
    code. Teachers and pupils work within the
    integrative code are more likely to enjoy greater
    autonomous and control over the process of
    teaching and learning. They are also more likely
    to nurture a kind of less definite and more open
    identity towards the subject-matter under study

79
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80
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • 2. Michael Youngs Thesis on
  • the School Curriculum for the 21st Century

81
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Young makes a distinction between curricula of
    divisive specialization and connective
    specialization in analyzing the curricular
    structure of post-compulsory and A-level
    education in England and Wales

82
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Curriculum of divisive specialization
  • It refers to curriculum in post- compulsory
    education which corresponds with the mode of
    production of Fordism, which bears the following
    features
  • Rigid insulation between manual and non-manual
    labor
  • Rigid sectional form of divisive specialization
    among occupational and professional groups
  • Complex division of labor into mechanical,
    repetitive and observable motions
  • Separation between conception and execution of
    work
  • Strict Hierarchical structure of delegation of
    authority and line of commands

83
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Curriculum of divisive specialization
  • In connection to the mode of production of
    Fordism, the curriculum of in post-compulsory and
    A-level education is organized in the form of
    what Young called "divisive specialization"
  • Sharpe separation between academic study and
    vocational training
  • Sharpe division among curricular streams, such as
    science, humanities and social study
  • Selective and exclusive rather than participating
    and inclusive education system
  • Inflexible in movement and transferring between
    divisions and streams
  • Exaggerate differences between high low
    prestigious institutions and programs

84
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Curriculum in connective specialization
  • It refers to curriculum, which Young advocates
    would be advantageous to the labor formation of
    the economy of the 21st century, which bears the
    following structural attributes
  • Flexible specialization of production and greatly
    decrease the division between manual and
    non-manual labor both in scale and scope
  • Sectional specialization was replaced by
    corporate specialization, which encouraging
    vertical integration among different occupational
    and professional groups within corporations.
  • New information-based technology replacing
    mechanical and repetitive motions of human labor
  • Human-centred organization and flatter management
    structure
  • Interactively integration between conception and
    execution of work in models such as quality
    circles, quality terms, learning community

85
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Curriculum in connective specialization
  • In relation to the mode of production of
    post-Fordism, Young suggests that school
    curriculum for the 21st century should be in the
    form of connective specialization
  • Connective specialization as a curriculum
    concept it points to the interdependence of the
    concept, processes, and organization of
    curriculum. As definition of educational purposes
    it seeks to transcend the traditional dichotomy
    of the educated person (academic and
    non-manual) and the competent employee
    (vocational and manual) which define the purposes
    of the two tracks of a divided curriculum.
    (Young, 1998, p. 78)

86
The Curriculum Code of Liberal Studies in
Secondary-School Education
  • Curriculum in connective specialization
  • In relation to the mode of production of
    post-Fordism, Young suggests that school
    curriculum for the 21st century should be in the
    form of connective specialization
  • It therefore "provides the basis a very different
    curriculum for the future" which he terms
    "connective specialization". "Such a curriculum
    would need to build on and give specificity to
    the principles of
  • breadth and flexibility
  • connections between both core and specialist
    studies and general (academic) and applied
    (vocational) studies
  • opportunities for progression and credit transfer
  • a clear sense of the purpose of the curriculum as
    a whole." (Young, 1998, p. 79)

87
What is the Epochal Meaning of Liberal Studies in
NSSC in the Schooling System of HKSAR?
  • The connective-specialization feature of Liberal
    Studies in NSSC

88
What is the Epochal Meaning of Liberal Studies in
NSSC in the Schooling System of HKSAR?
  • The relative definitive features of Liberal
    Studies

89
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90
Lecture 1 Development of Idea of Liberal
Education END
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