????????

1
???????? ??? ?????

• ????? ???????
• ???? ????' ???? ?????
• ?????
• ??? ?????
• ???? ??????

2

• ????? ?????????
• ??? 3.6

3
??? ???? ?? ????????

• ?? ?? ??????? ????? ????????? ??????????
• ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????
• ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????
  ???? ?????.
• ???? ????? ???? (NP), ????? ????? (VP), ?????
• ??? (PP) ??? ????.
• ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????????
  ?????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????
  ????????.

4
??? ???? ?? ???????? - ????

• ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ???
  ????? ????????? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ???????
  ??????? ??? ?????, ????? ?? ???, ?????, ?????????
  ????? ?? ?????.
• ??????
• ???? N ???D NP ?? V ??? ADV VP.

5
???????? ??? ?????

• ?????, ?? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????
  ?? ????? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ??????? ????
  ?????? ?? ??? ?????.
• ????, ????? ???? ????????? ?????? ???? ??????
  ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ??.

6
???????? - ??????

• ????? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ?? ??
• N Noun NP Noun Phrase
• V Verb VP Verb Phrase
• P Preposition PP Prepositional Phrase
• A Adjective AP Adjective Phrase
• ADV Adverb ADVP Adverbial Phrase
• ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? D
  Determiner
• M Modal

7
????? ????? ?????????

• ???? ????? ????? ????????? ??"? ?????? ??? ?????
• ??? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ?"? ?????
  ???????? ?????? ?
• ??? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ?"? ????? ???
  ???????? ???????? ??? ?
• ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???????
• ????? ??? ?? ????? ??????.

8
????? ???????? ??????

• ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??????? "??? ?????
  ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ???????"
• ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ????????
  ??????.
• ????, ???? ??????, ???? ??????? ??? ????????
  ????? ??????
• Particle ???? ??? ??????? ????? (????? ?? ????
  ?????) ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???. ???? up, down,
  on, off ???'.
• Conjunction ???? ????? ?????? ??? ?????, ???????
  ?? ??? ?????? ????. ???? ?-, ???, ??, and, but,
  as, ????? ?????? ???? ?- , ?-that, ????, when
  ???'.

9
Particle and Conjunction???????

• Particle
• The handle came off.
• He put his hat on
• He went up to see the manager.
• ???????
• ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????
• "?????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ?-"
• ???? ????? ????, ?????? ??"? ???? ????? ?? ??
  ??????.
• Conjunction
• I thought that you might like some milk.
• After he had eaten, he fell asleep.
• I shall wait until you come back.
• ???????
• ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???. (???? ?-
  ???? ???? ??????)
• ???? ?? ??? ??? ????. (?- ???? ???? ?????)

10
????? ???????? ??????

• ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????????? ??"?
  ????????? ???????
• ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????
  ????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????.
• ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????????? ??"? (Particle
  and Conjunction) ??? ??? ?????????? ???????
  (??????? ????), ?? ???? ?????.
• ????? ??? ??? ???? ????????

11
Particles and Conjunction ?????? ?????

• ?? ????????? ?? ?- Particle ??? ???? ????? ???
  ????? ?????? (Conjunctions) ???? ?????? ???????
  ?? ?????.
• ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???, ????? ?????, Particles
  ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????.
• ??????
• He put his hat on. - Particle
• Can not be replaced by
• He put his hat carefully. - Adverb

12
Particles and Conjunction ?????? ????? - ????

• ?? ?? Particles ?-Conjunctions ?? ?? ????? ????
  ?? ?? ???
• ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?"? ??????
  (1976) ???? ??? ????? ???.
• ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?-Particles ??? ??
  ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ???
  ????? ???? ????? ???.
• ??????
• He put his hat on his head.
• The handle came off the door.
• After the meal, he fell asleep.
• I shall wait until your return.
• - ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???.

13
Particles and Conjunctions?????? ???

• ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? Particles ??????
  ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???.
• ?????, ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????
  ???? ?????? ???? ?-Particles ??????? ?????
  (Conjunctions).
• ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????????
  ??
• ????? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ??? (?? ??????? ???
  ???? ???).
• Particles ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????
  ????.
• ????? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???? - - -
  ?????? ???????1.
• ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????.
• 1????? ????? ????? ????? (?, ??? ???'), ?????
  ????? (???, ??, ??- ???')

14
????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????

• I havent seen him since the party. -
  Preposition
• I havent seen him since the party begun. -
  Conjunction
• I havent seen him since. - Adverb
• ???????
• ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????. - ???? ???
• ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ????. - ???? ?????
• ?? ????? ???? ???. - ???? ?????

15
????? ????? ???? - ????

• ?????, ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????
  ??-Particles ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???????
  ????? ????? ???? ????? (????? 1), ?? ?? ????
  ????? (????? 2), ?? ??? ????? ?????? ???? (?????
  3).
• ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?? ????? ???????.
  ????, ???? ????? know
• I dont know the answer. ????? ???? ????? -
• I dont know you are innocent. ?? ???? ????? -
• I dont know. - ??? ?????
• ???????
• ??? ?? ????? ?????. - ???? ????? ????
• ??? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ?????. - ???? ????
  ??????
• ??? ?? ?????. - ??? ?????

16
????? ????? ???? - ????

• ????, ????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??????
  ???????? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????.
• ???? ???, ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ?????
  ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ???????? ????, ?????
  ???? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???????
  (Premodifiers).
• ??????
• Hes been feeling unwell a couple of weeks before
  his collapse.
• ???? ??? - Preposition
• Hes been feeling unwell a couple of weeks before
  he collapsed. ???? ????? - Conjunction
• Hes been feeling unwell a couple of weeks
  before. Adverb

17
????? ?????? ????? ????

• ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????
  ?????? ?? ??.
• ???? ?????? ??"? ????, ??????, ???? ????? ?????
  ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????
  ???????? ?????? ????.
• ????,
• He waited until her departure.
• He waited until she left.
• He waited until.
• He left during the party.
• He left during the party was still going on.
• He left during.
• He collapsed while the party.
• He collapsed while the party was in full swing.
• He collapsed while.
• ????????

18
????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????

• ??? ??? ?? ???? ????.
• ??? ??? ?? ????? ???.
• ??? ??? ??.
• ??? ???? ???? ????? ????.
• ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????.
• ??? ???? ????.
• ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???.
• ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????.
• ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?.

19
????? ?????? ????? ???? - ????

• ??? ??????, ??? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???
  ??? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??????, ?????? ??
  ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?
• ?????? ???, ?????, ?? !
• ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????
• ????????? ??????.
• ??????
• ??? ????? ???? ????.
• ??? ????? ???? ????? ????.
• ??? ?????.
• He hoped her resignation.
• He hoped she would resigned.
• He hoped.

20
????? ????? ???? ????? ??????

• ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???
  ????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????
  ???????? ????? ?? ????? (??? ?????? ????).
• ??????? ??"? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?????????
  ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????
  ??? ????????? ????? ????.
• ???? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??"? ???? "????????"
  ?????. ??? ?? "?????????" ?????, ?????, ?? ??????
  ??????? ?????????? ?? ???? ????? ????????, ??
  ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? (????)
  ????? ???? ?? ???????.

21
?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???

• ?????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?????
  ????? ??????? ??? ???????.
• ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????
  ??? (????? ????? ?? ?????????), ?? ?? ??????
  ????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????
  ????? ???.
• ??????
• ?? ???? ????? ??????/?????? ??????? ???? ?????
  ????? ???? of
• I have favour to ask (of) you.
• I dont know (of) any other solution.
• I have never heard of him.
• ???????
• ????, ( ????? ???? ??..., ???? ?..., ???? ?...)
• ???? ??? ?????.
• ???? ??? ????? ??????.
• "???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ... ?????? ???? ??????".

22
?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? - ????

• ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?????? / ??????
  ??????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ????
  of
• He stayed at home because of the strike.
• He fell out (of) the window.
• ???????
• ???? ???? ????? ??? ?????.
• ???? ???? ???? ????.
• ?????, ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???
  ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ????
  ????? ???? ???.

23
???????

• ????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ????
  ???? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ???
  ?????? ?? ?-Particles ??? ????? ??????
  (?-Conjunctions), ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????
  ????? ???.
• ?????, Particles ?? ????? ??? ???????? ???
  ???????. ?-Conjunctions (????? ??????) ????????
  ?? ??????? ????? ??? ??????.

24
????? ??????????? 3.7
25
????? ??????????? 3.7

• ???? ?????, ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????
  ?????????.
• ???? ??????, ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ????
  ????????? ?"? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ????????
  ??? ????.
• ??? ???? ??????? ?? ????-????? ??? ??? ?? ??
  ?????
• ??? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ?? ?????

26
???????? ????????? - ??????

• ????? ?? ??? NP
• ????? ???? VP
• ????? ???? ??? PP
• ????? ?? ???? AP

• ?? ??? N
• ???? V
• ????? D
• ???? ??? P
• ?? ???? A (?? ADJ)
• ???? ????? ADV
• ???? ??? M
• ???? S

27
??"? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ???? 1 ???? ??????????

• ???? ??? ????????? ???? ??? ????-????? ????
  ????-????.
• ???? ??????? ??"? (adverb) ??"? ???? ?"? ?????
  ????? ly ???-???? (adjective) ?????.
• ???????
• Clever (adj) ? Cleverly (adv)
• Heavy (adj) ? Heavily (adv)
• Consistent (adj) ? Consistently (adv)

28
??"? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ???? 1 ????
?????????? (????)

• ???? ?????? ??? ???? ??"? ??"? ???? ?"? ?????
  ?????? ???- ?? ???-?????? ????? ??????.
• ???????
• ??? (adj) ? ?????? (adv)
• ??? (adj) ? ???????? (adv)
• ???? (adj) ? ????????? (adv)

29
??"? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ???? 1 ????
?????????? (????)

• ??? ?? ??, ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???
  ????, ???? ??-??-??? ?? ??"? ?????? ??.
• ????? ???????
• ginormous ? ginormously
• Fascistic ? Fascistically
• Communistic ? Communistically
• ??????? ??????
• ????? ? ????????
• ???????? ? ???????????
• ?????? ? ?????????
• ?????? ? ?????????

30
??"? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ???? 1 ????
?????????? (????)

• ???????, ?????? ??????? ??? ????-????? ????
  ?????? ?????? ly, ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??
  ????? ?????? ??.
• ??????? fast, hard.
• ?? ?????? ?????? ????-???? ??????? ??
  ?????-?????.
• ???? ???, ????, ???.
• "??? ????!" ??? ????? ????.
• ????? ????? ?? ????.
• ????? ???.

31
??"? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ???? 1 ????
?????????? (????)

• ???????, ???? ?????????? ????? ?"? ??????
  ??????-????? ??? ????? ?????????? (comparative)
  ??? ????? er ?????. ??? ???, ?? ????? ?? ?????
  ?????????? ?? ??-????? ??????.
• ????
• quick (adj) er quicker (comparative)
• quickly (adv) er quicklier (comparative)
• ????? ?????? ????? more quickly ???? quicklier
  ??? quicker, ???? ????? ????? ?????????? ??
  ??-????? quick.
• He thinks ADVP more quickly/quicker/quicklier
  than me
• His brain is AP more quick/quicker than mine
• ????????

32
??"? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ???? 1 ????
?????????? (????)

• ??????, ???? ????? ??? ????? ??????
  ?????-?????
• ??????? ???? ??????????.
• ??? ????? ?????? ???????, ??? er ???????.
• ???????
• ??? ???? ADV ???????/???????.
• ??? ???? ADVP ??????? ????/??????? ???? ????
  ????
• ??? ???? ADVP ????? ????/???? ???? ???? ????.
• ??? ???? ADVP ???????/??????? ??? ???? ????
  ????
• ??? ???? ADVP ??????? ????? ???? ???? ????
• ???, ??? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ????
  ???????...

??? ????? ????? ?? ?????...
33
??"? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ???? 2 ???? ???????

• ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????-????
  ?????-?????.
• ???????, ???? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ???
  ????-???? ?????-?????.
• ?????
• John talks really quickly advadv
• John talks real quick adjadj

34
??"? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ???? 2 ???? ???????
(????)

• ????? ?? ????? ?? ???????
• "?????? ??? ?????" ????? "????? ???? ?????"
• "????? ??? ?? ?????" ????? "????? ??????? ??
  ?????"
• ????? ?? "???? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????" ?????
  "??? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ????"
• ????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????
  ????? ???? ?????-?????.

35
??"? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ???? 3 ??????-???????

• ????-????? (Premodifier) ??? ???? ???? ???? ????
  ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???????.
• ???? Its a fat cat. (Fat ???? ?? cat).
• ???? very, rather, quite, few.
• ???????, ????-???? ???"? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??
  ??????-??????.
• His speech is very/rather/quite slow adj
• He talks very/rather/quite slowly adv
• ???????
• ?????? ??? ???/???/??? ???? adj
• ??? ???? ???/???/??? ??????? adv

36
?? ?? ????? ??? ??"? ???-?????

• ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????
  (distribution) ???? ???? ??? ????? ????? ??
  ??-???, ???? ????-????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????,
  ????, ????-?????.
• ????
• ??? ???? ????? (???? ???? ?"?)
• ??? ???? ???? (?"? ???? ????)
• ??? ???? ???? ??????? (?"? ???? ?"?)
• ???? ?????? ???? (?"? ???? ????)

37
????? ??????

• ?????? ?????? ????? (??????) ????? ??? ???? ????
  ??? ????-????? ???-?????.
• ?? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????...
• (???? ??????????, ????? ??????? ???? ???????,
  ????? ?????? ???????-??????)
• ...??? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ??"?
  ???-????.
• ??????, ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ????
  ????? ????? ???? ??????.
• ?? ?? ?? ???, ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????
  ??????.

38
????? ??????

• ????? ????? ?????? (Complementary Distribution)
  ????? ????? ????? (Distribution) ????? ???????
• ?????? ???? W, ???? ? A, B ??? ????? ?? W ??
• ?????? ?? A ?- B ??? ????? ????, ????? Ø B ? A
  A?????? ?? A ?- B ??? ?? ?????, ????? A U B W
• ?????, A ?- B ?? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??
  ?????.

39
????? ?????? (????)
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

• ????? ??? ????
• ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????.
• ?????? ????? 64
• ?????? ??????? ?????? ??-?????? ?? ??????,
  ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ????????.
• ?? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?????.

40
????? ?????? ??????

• ??? ??????? ???? ???????, ???? ????? ??????? ????
  ????? ?????? ?????? (Systematic Complementary
  Distribution) ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ???????
  ????? ????? ????? (distributional class).

41
????? ?????? ?????? (????)

• ????? ???????, ?? ??????????? ????? ?????? (e)s
• ?????? /IZ/ ???? ??? ????? ??"? ??????? ??????
  ????
• Class-classes, buzz-buzzes,
• ?????? /Z/ ???? ??? ????? ??"? ??????? ??????,
  ???????, ?? ????? ??-???? ?????? (voiced)
• Fee-fees, paw-paws, plan-plans
• ?????? /S/ ???? ??? ????? ??"? ??????? ??????
  ??-???? ????? (voiceless)
• Lap-laps, rat-rats,
• ?????? /IZ/, /Z/, /S/ ?? ?????? ?????? ??????,
  ???? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? (e)s
  

42
????? ?????? ?????? (????)

• ????? ?????? ????? "????????"
• ???? ?????? "??????" ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????
  ???? ? (?') ?? ? (?'), ????? ??, ?, ??.
• ?????, ?????, ??????, ?????? ...
• ???? ?????? "??????" ???? ???? ?????? ???? ?????
  ? (?').
• ?????, ?????, ??????...
• ???? "????'????" (???? "?'????")...
• ???? ?????? "??????" ???? ???? ?????? ???? ?????
  ? (?') .
• ?????, ?????, ??????...
• ???? "????'????" (???? "??'?????"),...
• ???? ?????? "?????" ???? ??? ??????
• ?????, ?????, ?????, ????? ...
• ?? ?????? ??"? ??????? ?????? ?????, ???? ??? ???
  ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????.

43
????? ?????? ?????? (????)

• ????, ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ???
  ?? ??? ????? ????, ?????? ??????? ????????
  ?????...
• ...?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???????, ????? ?????
  ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????
  ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????, ??
  ????
• ??? ???? ?? ????????? ?? ????-????? (adverb)
  ???-????? (adjective), ?????? ??????? ????
  ??-???? (advective ????? A) !

44
"??-????" ("Advective")

• ???????? ??-???? ???? ????? ??? ??-????????
  ??-????, ?????-?????.
• ??? ???? ?????, ?? ???? ????? ?? ??-???,
  ?????-????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ??-??? (????,
  ????, ????-?????).
• ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????.
• ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??-????????? ??-????
  ?????-????? ??? ?????? ???? (Positional variants)
  ?? ???????? ??-????.

45
?????? ????

• ??? ?????? ??????? ?????
• ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? (????? ????, ??? ??"?
  ???-????) ????? ????? ???? (??? ?? ???? ?????
  ????? ??-??? ?? ????)
• ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? (e)s /IZ/, /Z/,
  ?-/S/ ?? ??????-???? ?? (e)s . ??????, ??????
  ?????? ????? ?????? ???? (??? ?? ??????? ???? ?"?
  ??????? ?????? ????, ???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????,
  ???')
• ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? "????????"?
• ?? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?? ??? ???-???? ??????
  ??.
• ????, ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ????, ???-???? ?????
  ??? ????-?????.

46
??? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ??-?????

• ?? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ??"? ??? ????? ????????
  ???? ??-????.
• ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???????
  (Determiners, ????? D) ?? ??? ?? ??-?????
• ?? ?????? ??????, ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????
  ?????????, ?"? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????
  ???????, ????-????, ?????-????.
• ??-????-??????
• ?? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??.

47
???? ??????? (Determiners)

• ?????? ???????? ????? ????? language ?? ????
  ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???????.
• ????? ?????? definite article (the) ???????
  ?????? indefinite article (a).
• ????? ????? demonstrative (???
  this/that/these/those)
• ????? ?????? interrogative (??? which/what)
• ??????? quantifier (??? every/each/any/some/no)
• ????? ??????? possessive (??? my/your/his/hers)

48
??????? ???? ?? ??-?????

• ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ???????
  ???????, ?????? ????, ??????, ???????? ??????????
  ?????-????.
• ?? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ?????
  ???????? (the) ??????? ?????? (a), ??? ?????
  ????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ????-????, ??? ?????
  ????? ???? ?????????.
• ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? (D) ???-????
  (adj).
• ??? ?? ??????? ????????? (????????) ?????????
• ???? ???...

49
??????? ???? ?? ??-????????? ??' 1 ??????
??????????? ?????

• ???? ???????, ?? ????-??? ?????-???? ?????
  ?????????? (comparative) ??? ????? er
• Quicker, nicer, funnier,
• ???????? ???
• thiser, everier, allier,
• ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ????-????
• ???? ????, ???? ????, ??? ????...
• ???? ???? ? ???? ???? ???? ??????.
• ?? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???????
• ??? ????, ?? ????, ????? ????...
• ???? ??? ? ???? ??? ???? ??????

50
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ???? ??' 1 ??????
??????????? ????? (????)

• ???? ???????, ??? ??-???? ?? ????-???? ?????? ??
  ??? ????? ly
• Quickly, nicely, funnily,
• ???????? ???
• thisly, everily, ally,
• ???? ?????? ??"? ??"? ???? ?"? ????? ?????? ???-
  ?? ???-?????? ????? ??????.
• ????????, ????????, ?????...
• ???? ???? ? ???? ?? ???????.
• ?? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??"? ????????
• ??????, ????, ??????
• ???? ??? ? ???? ?? ?????

51
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ???? ??' 2 ??????
????????

• ???? ???????, ???? ???? ????? ???????? ?????
  ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????
• Men handsome men dark handsome men tall dark
  handsome men,
• ??? ?????? ???? ?? ???????
• Car the car the my car which my cars,
• ???? ???? ???? ?????? ???????, ???? ????? ?????,
  ???? ???? ?? ????? ????????.
• All my cars.
• ????????

52
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ???? ??' 2 ??????
???????? (????)

• ???? ??????
• ???? ???? ????????? ????? ????? ???-???? ?"? ?'
  ?????? ?????? ?????
• ????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ?????
  ??????, ???? ???????...
• ???? ???? ????????? ?? ?????, ?????? ?? ??????,
  ??? ????? ????? ???? ?????, ??? ????? "????,
  ?????? ??????? ?? ??????")
• ?? ???? ???? ?? ?? ????? ????? ??????
• ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???
  ????? ??????? ???? ???.
• ?? ?????? ??????? ????
• ???????? ???? ????.
• ????? ??
• ??????? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ????
• ?????, ??? ???????, ???? ???? ?????? ???????, ??
  ?? ????? ????????.

53
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ???? ??' 3 ??????
??????

• ???? ???????, ?????-???? ????????? ?? ????? ????,
  ???? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??-???,
  ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??-?????
• D the A big bang (Determiner Adjective)
• A big D the bang (Adjective Determiner)
• D my A yellow pencil (Determiner Adjective)
• A yellow D my pencil (Adjective
  Determiner)
• ????????

54
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ???? ??' 3 ??????
?????? (????)

• ?????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??
  ???? ??-?????.
• ??? A ????? D ???
• ??? D ??? A ?????
• ??????? A ????? D ???
• ??????? D ??? A ?????
• ?? ???, ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? (?????
  ?????????, ??? ???? ?????).
• ??????? A ????? ??????? ????
• ??????? A ????? ???? A ???????

55
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ???? ??' 3 ??????
??????? (????)

• ???? ???????, ???? ???? (?"? and) Determiners ??
  Determiners
• each and every member of the class.
• these and those books
• ??? Adjectives ?? Adjectives
• A thoughtful and considerate person.
• A penetrating and insightful discussion.
• ??? ?? Adjectives ?? Determiners
• D my and A lazy son.
• A silly and D these ideas.

56
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ???? ??' 3 ??????
??????? (????)

• ?? ???? ??????, ???? ???? ?"? ?' ?????? ???????
  ?? ???????
• ???????? ???? ????.
• ?????? ??? ???? .
• ??? ??-???? ?? ??-????
• ??? ????? ?????
• ???? ?????? ????????
• ??? ?? ??-???? ?? ?????
• ???? D ??? A ??????.
• ???????? A ???????? D ?????.

57
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ???? ??' 4 ??????
????????

• ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ????-????.
• ???? ????????? ????????, ?? ??-???? ???? ??????
  ?? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????-???.
• ???????
• ??-????? "?????" ???? ???? ?? ??-???? "???", ??
  ?? ???? "????"? ?? "??"? ?? "???" ?? "??"?
• ?? ????? "?????" ???? ???? ?? ??-???? "?????", ??
  ?? ???? "???"? ?? "???"?

58
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ???? ??' 4 ??????
???????? (????)

• ?????????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ????????
  ???????? (???????) ?? ??-????? ????? ?????? ????
  ???-????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??-???? ???? ???
  ????.
• ????? ?? ????? ?????-????? (selection
  restriction) ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?????
• ?? ?? ???? ???? "?????" ?? ????? ??????? ??
  ????-??? ????? ??? ???? ??????.

59
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ???? ??' 4 ??????
???????? (????)

• ????? ???, ??????? ?? ???? "?????????" ??????
  ??????, ??? ?? ???? ?????? ??????-????? ???
  ????-?????.
• ? ???/????/??/???/??
• ? ???/????/??/???/?? ???/????
• ?? ???/????/??/???/??
• ? ?????/???/??/?????? ???/????

60
?????-????? ????????

• ??? ???, ????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? (?? ????
  ?????? ??? ???? ???????), ???? ??? ????????
  (???????) ??????.
• ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ????-??? ?????? ??????
  (Count nouns) ?????? ??-?????? (Non-Count nouns)
• ????? ?????? ?????? ???, ?????, ???, ???.
• ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???, ???, ???, ????,
  ??????.
• ?????? ?????? ??"? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????
  (???/?????), ???? ??????? ??-?????? ???? ????
  ???? (????/??????)
• ????? ?- ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???????,
  ?????? ???"?.

61
?????-????? ???????? (????)

• ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ???????
• ??????? ??? the (?? ?????? ??????) ??? ??????
  ????? ?? ??? ?? ??-???.
• ??????? ??? enough (?????) ??????? ????? ????
  ?????? ????? ???? ????? ??-??????.
• ???????? ??? a(n) ??????? ????? ?? ???? ??????
  ????? ????.
• ?????? ?????? ?????? ("???").
• ???? "??? ??? ???? ????".

62
?????-????? ???????? (????)
SINGULAR COUNT NOUN PLURAL COUNT NOUN NONCOUNT NOUN DETERMINER
the tool the tools the equipment the
enough tool enough tools enough equipment enough
a tool a tools an equipment a(n)
63
?????-????? ???????? (????)
????? ?"? ??-?????? ?"? ?????? ????? ???? ?"? ?????? ????? ????
?- ????? ????? ????
????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???
(?????? ??????) ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???
64
?????-????? ???????? ??????-????

• ??? ????? ?????, ?????? ??????-????? ????????
  (????? ?????????) ????? ??????? ??????-?????
  ?????-???? (????? ???????).
• ?????, ???????, ????? (?????? ????????) ??????
  ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??-??? ???? ???, ???? ????,
  ??? ????.
• "Efficient tool/tools/equipemnt
• ??? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????
  ??? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???? ?????.
• ???, ??????, ?????-????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??
  ???? ????-????, ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????
  ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? (???? ?????-???????).
• ???/????/???? ?????.
• ???/????/???? ???????.
• ?? ???, ?? ???? ?????, ????? ??? ???-????? ?????
  ???? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????
  ????.

65
??????? ???? ?? ??-????? ????? ???...

• ??????, ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ??
  ?????? ??? ???????, ?? ???? ???? ?? ????????
  ???????? ?? ???????? ???? ????.
• ?? ???, ???? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??????
  ??????? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ?????-????
• ????, ?????? "???" ???? ???? ??????
• ??? ????? ????? ??????.
• ?? ?? ??? ????
• "?????????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ????????
  ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???? ???
  ????" (????? ?"? ?"?)
• ??? ?? ???????, ??????? many, few, ???'...
• Few D people thought it was wise.
• They were few ADJ against many.

66
????? ??? 3.7 ????? ????????

• ???? ?? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????????
  ?????? ???? ?"? ????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???.
• ???? ??????, ???? ?? ???? ???? ????-???? ???? ??
  ????-???? (??? ????? ???????? ???, advective).
• ???? ????, ????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ??
  ????-????, ????? ?? ????-???? ???????? ????? ??
  ??? ?? ?????? ??????????, ?? ?????? ????????, ???
  ?????? ??????.

67

• ???? ?? ???????????? 3.8

68
???? ?? ???????????? 3.8

• ?? ??, ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????????
• ??? ?? ???? ????????? ????? ??? Conjunction ??
  Particle ????????
• ??? ???? ????/??????? ?? ??? ?? ????-?????
• ?? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????????
  ?? ??????? ???????? (Primitive), ????? ?? ??????
  ?????? ??????? ????? ????, ?? ??? ?? ???????
  ??????? (Composite) ??????? ??????? ????? ????.
• ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????
  ?(??? ????? ????) ?? ???????? ?????????,
  ????????, ??????????.
• ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? (Object Oriented
  Languages), integer ???? ?????? ??????
  (?????????), ???? ?- String ???? ??? ??"? ?????
  ?????, ???? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????
  ???? (??????, ?? char).

69
??????? ??????????

• ???? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? (????
  ????).
• ???? ?? ????? "????". ??? ?? ????, ????? "????"
  ?????? ?????????? (phonemes), ??????
• alom ? // , /a/, /l/, /o/, /m/
• ?? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ??????????, ?? ????
  ?????? ??????? ????? ?????

70
??????? ?????????? (????)

• ????????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???? ??????
  ???????????, ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????????
  (articulatory) ??????? ???????????? (acoustic)
  ??????? ????????? ??????? (distinctive features)
• ?"??????? ??????? ????????" (Theory of
  Distinctive Feature) ??????????, ???? ?????? ??
  ?????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???????.

71
??????? ?????????? (????)

• ??????? ?????????
• ???? (Voiced)/?? ???? (Non-Voiced) ??? ????
  ????? ?"? ???-???? ?????? ?? ????? ????.
• ??????? ???? ???? /??/, /?/, /?/
• ??????? ???? ?? ???? /??/, /?/
• ?????? (Consonantal)/?? ?????? (Non-Consonantal)
• ???? (High)/?? ???? (Non-High) ??? ???? ?????
  ?"? ???? ????? ?? ????.
• ??????? ???? ???? /??/, /??/.
• ??????? ???? ??-???? /???/, /???/.
• ???? ??? ???? ????????..
• ??? ?????, "??????? ????????" ?????? ????? 7,
  1986 ????? ?"??????"

72
??????? ?????????? (????)

• ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???? (????-???
  ????????), ??? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????
  ??????????? Macquarie ?????????, ?????? ?????
  ??????????
• ??????????, ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???
• http//www.ling.mq.edu.au/units/ling210-901/phono
  logy/features/distinctive_features.html
• syllabic / non-syllabic syll Syllabic sounds
  constitute a syllable peak (sonority peak).
  syll refers to vowels and to syllabic
  consonants. -syll refers to all non-syllabic
  consonants (including semi-vowels).
• consonantal / non-consonantal cons Consonantal
  sounds are produced with at least approximant
  stricture. That is consonantal sounds involve
  vocal tract constriction significantly greater
  that that which occurs for vowels. cons refers
  to all consonants except for semi-vowels (which
  often have resonant stricture). -cons refers to
  vowels and semi-vowels.
• sonorant / obstruent son Sonorant sounds are
  produced with vocal tract configuration that
  permits air pressure on both sides of any
  constriction to be approximately equal to the air
  pressure outside the mouth. Obstruents possess
  constriction (stricture) that is sufficient to
  result in significantly greater air pressure
  behind the constriction than occurs in front of
  the constriction and outside the mouth. son
  refers to vowels and approximants (glides and
  semi-vowels). -son refers to stops, fricatives
  and affricates.
• coronal / non-coronal cor "Coronal sounds are
  produced by raising the tongue blade toward the
  teeth or the hard palate noncoronal sounds are
  produced without such a gesture." This feature is
  intended for use with consonants only. cor
  refers to dentals (not including labio-dentals)
  alveolars, post-alveolars, palato-alveolars,
  palatals. -cor refers to labials, velars,
  uvulars, pharyngeals.

73
??????? ?????????? (????)

• anterior / posterior ant "Anterior sounds are
  produced with a primary constriction at or in
  front of the alveolar ridge. Posterior sounds are
  produced with a primary constriction behind the
  alveolar ridge." This feature is intended to be
  applied to consonants. ant refers to labials,
  dentals and alveolars. -ant refers to
  post-alveolars, palato-alveolars, retroflex,
  palatals, velars, uvulars, pharyngeals.
• labial / non-labial lab Labial sounds involve
  rounding or constriction at the lips. lab
  refers to labial and labialised consonants and to
  rounded vowels. -lab refers to all other
  sounds.
• distributed / non-distributed distr
  "Distributed sounds are produced with a
  constriction that extends for a considerable
  distance along the midsaggital axis of the oral
  tract nondistributed sounds are produced with a
  constriction that extends for only a short
  distance in this direction." distr refers to
  sounds produced with the blade or front of the
  tongue, or bilabial sounds. -distr refers to
  sounds produced with the tip of the tongue. This
  feature can distinguish between palatal and
  retroflex sounds, between bilabial and
  labiodental sounds, between lamino-dental and
  apico-dental sounds.
• high / non-high high "High sounds are produced
  by raising the body of the tongue toward the
  palate nonhigh sounds are produced without such
  a gesture." high refers to palatals, velars,
  palatalised consonants, velarised consonants,
  high vowels, semi-vowels. -high refers to all
  other sounds. Note, however, the discussion above
  on how this feature is used in combination with
  mid to describe the distinction between four
  contrastive vowel heights.
• mid / non-mid mid Mid sounds are produced with
  tongue height approximately half way between the
  tongue positions appropriate for high and
  low. This vowel height feature is only
  required when a language has four levels of
  height contrast and remains unspecified for
  languages with fewer vowel height contrasts.
  mid refers to vowels with intermediate vowel
  height. -mid refers to all other sounds.

74
??????? ?????????? (????)

• low / non-low low "Low sounds are produced by
  drawing the body of the tongue down away from the
  roof of the mouth nonlow sounds are produced
  without such a gesture." low refers to low
  vowels, pharyngeal consonants, pharyngealised
  consonants.
• back / non-back back "Back sounds are produced
  with the tongue body relatively retracted
  nonback or front sounds are produced with the
  tongue body relatively advanced." back refers
  to Velars, uvulars, pharyngeals, velarised
  consonants, pharyngealised consonants, central
  vowels, central semi-vowels, back vowels, back
  semi-vowels. -back refers to all other sounds.
• continuant / stop cont "Continuants are formed
  with a vocal tract configuration allowing the
  airstream to flow through the midsaggital region
  of the oral tract stops are produced with a
  sustained occlusion in this region." For some
  reason it has been traditional to include lateral
  consonants as stops in distinctive feature
  theory. Since laterals can have approximant,
  fricative or stop (click) stricture there seems
  to be no justification in including all laterals
  with the stops, and in this course laterals are
  not necessarily stops (as is the case for the
  lateral clicks) but can also be continuants (as
  is the case for the lateral approximants and
  fricatives. cont refers to vowels,
  approximants, fricatives. -cont refers to nasal
  stops, oral stops.
• lateral / central lat "Lateral sounds, the
  most familiar of which is l, are produced with
  the tongue placed in such a way as to prevent the
  airstream from flowing outward through the centre
  of the mouth, while allowing it to pass over one
  or both sides of the tongue central sounds do
  not invoke such a constriction." lat refers to
  lateral approximants, lateral fricatives, lateral
  clicks. -lat refers to all other sounds.
• nasal / oral nas "Nasal sounds are produced by
  lowering the velum and allowing the air to pass
  outward through the nose oral sounds are
  produced with the velum raised to prevent the
  passage of air through the nose." nas refers
  to nasal stops, nasalised consonants, nasalised
  vowels. -nas refers to all other sounds.

75
??????? ?????????? (????)

• tense / lax tense The traditional definition
  of this feature claims that tense vowels
  involve a greater degree of constriction then
  -tense (lax) vowels. Tense vowels need not be
  any different to lax vowels in terms of
  constriction (e.g. the tense/lax pair /??,?/ in
  Australian English are produced with the same
  tongue position but differ in duration). The
  tense/lax distinction in vowels seems to be
  related to some kind of strong/weak distinction.
  This is realised in some languages as a
  distinction between more peripheral vowels
  (closer to the four corners of the vowel
  quadrilateral) and less peripheral vowels (either
  more centred or more mid vowels). In other
  languages, a long/short durational distinction is
  what is often the main acoustic distinction
  between tense and lax vowels. Note, however, that
  short vowels are more likely to be produced with
  under-realised targets (more mid-central) during
  connected speech than are long vowels because the
  long vowels have more time to reach their
  targets. tense refers to tense vowels or long
  vowels. -tense refers to lax vowels or short
  vowels.
• sibilant / non-sibilant sib Sibilants are
  those fricatives with large amounts of acoustic
  energy at high frequencies. sib refers to s ?
  z ?. -sib refers to all other sounds.
• spread glottis / non-spread glottis spread
  "Spread or aspirated sounds are produced with the
  vocal cords drawn apart producing a nonperiodic
  (noise) component in the acoustic signal
  nonspread or unaspirated sounds are produced
  without this gesture." spread refers to
  aspirated consonants, breathy voiced or murmured
  consonants, voiceless vowels, voiceless
  approximants. -spread refers to all other
  sounds.
• constricted glottis / non-constricted glottis
  constr "Constricted or glottalized sounds are
  produced with the vocal cords drawn together,
  preventing normal vocal cord vibration
  nonconstricted (nonglottalized) sounds are
  produced without such a gesture." constr
  refers to ejectives, implosives, glottalized or
  laryngealised consonants, glottalized or
  laryngealised vowels. -constr refers to all
  other sounds.
• voiced / voiceless voice "Voiced sounds are
  produced with a laryngeal configuration
  permitting periodic vibration of the vocal cords
  voiceless sounds lack such periodic vibration."
  voice refers to all voiced sounds. -voice
  refers to all voiceless sounds.

76
??????? ?????????? (????)

• ??? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???????? /p/ ????? ???
• ?? ???? (Non-Voiced)
• ?????? (Consonantal)
• ?? ???? (Non-High)
• ???'...
• ?????? ?????????
• /p/ -Voiced, Consonantal, -High,

77
??????? ?????????? (????)

• ?? ?????? ????
• ????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????.
• ????
• ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????????-?????? ????
  ??????? /??/, /??/, /?/, /?/, /?/...
• ?? ????? "????????" ?? ??????...
• ???? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????????-?????? ????
  ?????? ???? sibilant, ????? ????? ??????.
• ?? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ????.
• ???????? ????? ??????????, ????? ????? ??????????
  ???? ????????? ????????? ???? ?????? ????????
  (???????????), ??? ??????? ????????? (features)
  ???????? ?????????.

78
????????? ?? ?????????? (Chomsky)

• ?????? ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ????
  (Verb), ??-???? (Adjective), ??-??? (Noun) ?????
  ??? (Preposition), ?????? ????? ??????? ?"? ???
  ???????? ????
• ???????/?? ??????? (Nominal/Non-nominal)
• ????? ? N/-N ??????.
• ?????/?? ????? (Verbal/Non-verbal)
• ????? ? V/-V ??????.

79
????????? ?? ?????????? (????)

• ?????? ?? ???? ????????? ???????? (N, Adj, V, ?-
  P) ??"? ????????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????
• Verb V, -N
• Noun -V, N
• Adjective V, N
• Preposition -V, -N
• ????? ?? ?? ?? ????

80
?????? ??-??????????????

• ????? ????? ??"? ????????, ???? ????? ??????
  ??-?????????????? (supercategorial
  generalizations), ????? ?????? ?????? ????????
  ????? ??????????.
• ????, ???????, ?? ????? ?? ?????-??? ??????
  ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ??-???
  (Noun-Phrase Complement), ???? ?????-???
  ?????-????, ???? ??????.
• John loves Mary (VNP)
• John bought a present for Mary (PNP)
• Johns admiration Mary (NNP)
• John is fond Mary (NNP)

81
?????? ??-?????????????? (????)

• ???? ???? ????? ???
• ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????
  ?? NP-Complements.
• ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?????????, ????? ???????
  ???.
• ????????, ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???
  ?????? ????? ????? ?????, ???? ??-????????
  (supercategory).
• ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????
  ??????? ?? ???.
• ?? ?????, ???? ??? ??? ??????, ???? ??? ????
  ????? ??? ???????? ????? ??-??????? ?????? ??????
  ?????? ?? NP-Complements.
• ??? ??, ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????...

82
?????? ??-?????????????? (????)

• ?????? ?? ?????? (??????)
• Verb V, -N
• Noun -V, N
• Adjective V, N
• Preposition -V, -N
• ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??-???????? ????? ?????
  ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? -N.
• (????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? V/-V).
• ??? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ????????, ??
  ?????? ???? -N ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????
  ?????-?"? (Noun Complements).

83
?????? ??-?????????????? (????)

• ??????, ???? ????? ??????? ??"? ???????? ??????
  ????? ??? ?????? ??-???????? ?????? ?? ?????????
  ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? (????, ????? ???).
• ???, ???? ????? ?? ???-????????? ????? ?????
  ??????
• ??-???????? V, ?????? ?? V ?- Adj.
• ??-???????? -V, ?????? ?? N ?- P.
• ??-???????? N, ?????? ?? N ?- Adj.
• ??-???????? -N, ?????? ?? V ?- P.

84
?????? ??-?????????????? (????)

• ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?????
  ????? ???? ??????, ???? ??? ?? ???? ?????????.
• ???????? ????, ?????-??? (N) ?????-???? (Adj) ??
  ???? ?? ???/????, ?? ?????? ??????-??? ???.
• Bravo ragazzo (??? ???) ?"??"? ??? ????
• Brava ragazza (???? ????) ?"??"? ???? ????
• Bravi ragazzi (????? ?????) ?"??"? ??? ????
• Brave ragazze (????? ?????) ?"??"? ???? ????
• ???? ???? ???? ?????????, ?? ????????? ???? N
  ?? ???? ?? ???/????.

85
?????? ??-?????????????? ???? ???????

• ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??-?????????? ????
  ???????? ???? ?????, ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??
  ???? ???????? ???? ??????.
• ??? ??-???????? ??????? ???? ?????, ??
  ??-???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??.
• ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????-?????? ?????
  ???? ??????? ???? ???????? ????-?????.

86
?????? ??-?????????????? ???? ??????? (????)

• ????, ???????, ?? ?????? ????-??? (NP) ???????
  ??? (PP) ?????? ????? ????? ?????? (focus
  position) ??????? ?????? (cleft sentences) ???
  ??? ?????
• It was a red car that she bought (NP)
• It was in the new shop that I met her (PP)
• It is very pretty that she is (AP)
• It is very quickly that she writes (ADVP)
• It is go home that I will (VP)

87
?????? ??-?????????????? ???? ??????? (????)

• ???? ?????? ?"? ?????? ????-??? ?????? ?????
  ????? ??-???????? ???????.
• ???? ???? ????? ??"? ??????-??? ?????? ?? ???????
  -V (???? ?????), ???? ??? ???? ???????? ??
  ??????? ?? ????? -V ?????? ????? ???????
  ??????? ??????.
• ????? ??, ?????? ?"? ??????? ????-??? ??????
  ??-??????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ????-???
  ??????-??? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????.

88
?????? ??-?????????????? ???? ??????? (????)

• ????? ????? ???????, ?????? ???? (AP) ???????
  ???? (VP) ?????? ?????? ???? ????-??? (?? ??????
  ?"? NP ??????? ??? PP - ?? ??????).
• Der AP seiner Freundin überdrüssige Student
• The of-his girlfriend weary student
• The student weary of his girlfriend
• Ein VP sein Studium seit langem hassender
  Student
• A His studies since long hating student
• A student hating his studies for a long time
• ??, ?????? ?? "??????? ???????? ???? ????-???"
  ??????? ????? ????? ????? ???-???????? ??????
  ????? V.

89
?????? ??-?????????????? ??????? ??????????????

• ???? ??? ???????? (Stowell) ???? ?????
  ???????????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?????????
  ????????? ?????? ?????? ????? "?????" ??
  ??-?????????
• ??"? ??????, ???? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????
  ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? (?????
  ???? ??????).
• ????, ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ?????????
  ??? ????-??? (N) ?????-???? (Adj), ????? ?? ???
  ?? ??????? ??? ???? N

90
?????? ??-?????????????? ???????
?????????????? (????)

• ????? ?????, ????? ?????? ??????????? ??? ??????
  ????-??? (NN) ??????? ??? (PP) , ??????? ??
  ?????-??? ????? ?"? ??????-??? (case affixes)
• ?????? ??? (????? ?? ????) ???? ???? ??? ??????
  ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????.
• ???? ?' ????? ?????? (?????? ??????? ?????)
• ????? ?? ????/?????
• ???? ?? ???????/????????
• ???? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????????? ??? ?????
  (Adj) ?????? (V) ?????, ??????? ??? ????? ???????
  ???????? ??? ?? ???? (Predicate).

91
????? ???????? ?????? ????????

• ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????????
  ?????? ??? "?????" ?????? ??- ???????? ??? ??????
  ????.
• ???? ????, ????? ??? ?????? ?????????, ???
  ??????? ????????? ????? ??? ?? "?????" ??????
  ??-????????.
• ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???, ???? ????? ????
  ???? ?????? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ?"? ??????
  ?????? ?????????.
• ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????
  ??????? ?????????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????
  ?? ??? ???? (????? ??????).
• ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ??? ?????
  ??????, Present and Past (???? ????).
• ?????? ???? ??? ????? ????
• ????????

Past Present
worked works
went goes
was is
92
????? ???????? ?????? ???????? - ????

• ??????, ????? ???, ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???,
  ????, ????, ?????.
• ??????
• ???, ????, ???? -
• (???? ??? ????? ????)
• ??????
• (???? ??? ??? ????)
• ????? ???, ???? ??, ?? ????? "????" ?????? ????
  ??? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???? ??? (?????, ?????
  ???), ??? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??????.
• ??????
• ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????.
• ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ????.
• ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????.
• ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????
  ??? ????? ????? ?????
• ?????? ??????, ?????? ??? ??? ??? (???? ??? ????
  ????? ?? ?? ?????).
• ????, ???? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???
  ???? ????? ??????, ??????? ?????.

??? ???? ???? ?????
??? ???? ???? ????
??? ???? ????? ????
93
????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???
????????

• ????, ???? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ???????
• ???? ??? ((Auxiliaries
• ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????, ????, ???
• (will go ??? ????), ???? ???? (was deleted, is
  taken),
• ???? (???? "???? ????", "must go" ???').
• ???? will / would, can / could, must, ????,
  ?????, ???? ????, ???'.
• ????? ??????
• ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ???.
• ???? ???, ????, ???, ??? (????????? ??????)
  ???'.

94
???? ??? ????? ????? ??????

• ???? ???? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??? ???? ???
  ???? ????? ?????? (???? ??????? ?????)
• ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?????
  ?????? ??????, ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????
  ????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???
  ?????? do (????? ????? ?? ????? ?????).
• ??????
• (???? ????? ????? ??? ?????)
• Is it still raining? - ???? ???
• Can you speak English? - ???? ???
• Intends he to come? - ???? ????
• Does he intend to come? - ???? ???? ???? ???
• ??????, ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????
  ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????, ?? ?????
  ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??
  ???? ????, ????
• ??? ???? ??? ???? ????
• ??? ??? ???? ???? ????

95
???? ??? ????? ????? ?????? - ????

• ???? ??? ???? ????? ?"? ????? ????? nt ?? ?????
  ????? not (???? ???? ????), ???? ?????? ??????
  ?? ???? ????? ????? ??, ??? ?? ???? ?????? ????
  ??? ?????? do ?????? ????.
• ??????
• John could not / couldnt come to the party.
  ???? ???
• He is not / isnt working very hard. ???? ???
• I see not / seent any point in it. ????
  ????
• I do not / dont see any point in it. ????
  ???? ???? ???
• ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????
  ?????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?"? ????? ????
  ?????? ,'??' ???? ?????.
• ??????
• ?? ????? ???? ?? ????.
• ??? ?? ???? ???? ?????.

96
???? ??? ????? ????? ?????? - ????

• ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????, ????
  ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ???
  ??????? ???? ???? ?????? do.
• ??????
• Hell win, wont he?
• She isnt very clever, is she?
• You like her, like you?
• You like her, dont you / do you?
• ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ????.

97
????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????????

• ????, ???????? ????????? ??? ?????? ????? ????
  ????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ????????
  ??????? (???? ??? ?????? ??????) ??????.
• ?? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ???
  ????????? ??"? ????? ???????
• ?????? ????????? ????????? ???? ??? ?? ???????
  ?????????? ????? ??.
• ????? ?????? AUX, -AUX ?? ????????
• AUX ??? ????? ?? ???? ????.
• -AUX ??? ????? ?? ?????? ???????.
• ??????
• will V, -N, AUX Auxiliary Verb
• want V, -N, -AUX Nonauxiliary Verb

98
????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? - ????

• ?? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??????
  ????????. ????, ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ???
  ??-???????? ??????? ?? ???? ???
• Modal Auxiliaries
• ???? will / would, shall / should, can /
  could
• may / might, do / did, must ???'
• (???? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ??????? ??)
• Non-Modal Auxiliaries
• ??? ???? ????.
• ???? be, have ???'

99
????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ????????

• ?? ???????? Modal Auxiliaries?????? ?"? ???
  ????????
• ?????? ????????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????,
  ???
• ?? ????? (?????? ing), ??? ???? ??????
• ???? ???? ???? ((Present Perfect.
• ??????
• ???? ???? can
• ?? ???? ???? canning, ?? to be canned /
  cannen, ??? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????.
• ??????? ??????? ???? ???? to ???? ????? ????
  ???? ???? ??? ???.
• ??????
• ???? ???? must
• ?? ???? ???? must to go,??? must go .

100
Non-Modal Auxiliaries

• ????? ???? ???? ????? Modals ???????? ??
• ???? ???? (????) have
• ???? ????? ????? ??????.
• ????? ???? ????? ????? (?????? ????? ??????? ?-
  n ?? ed)
• ??????
• The referee has VP shown him the red card
• ???? ???? (?????) be
• ???? ????? ????? ??????.
• ????? ???? ????? ????? (?????? ????? ???????
  ?-ing)
• ??????
• She is VP making a lot of progress
• ???? ???? (????) be
• ???? ????? ????? ??????.
• ????? ???? ????? ????? (?????? ????? ??????? ?-
  n ?? ed)
• ??????
• He was VP shown the red card by the referee

101
???? ???? - ????

• ??????
• ???? ?- Modals-Non ??????
• ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? to. Infinitive
• ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?"? ????? ing.
• ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?"? ????? n.
• ??????
• He is going to be taken home by Mary.
• He is being taken home by Mary.
• He has been taken home by Mary.
• ????? ??? ???? ?-Modals ?????? ????? ????
• (??????? ??????????).
• ??????
• Itd be nice to can speak Arabic.
• I cant imagine hime canning do it.
• He hasnt cannen/ canned come.

102
???? ???? - ????

• ???? ?- Modals ??????
• ?? ???? ???? ????
• John may/ might/ can/ will/ would VP to go
  home
• John may/ might/ can/ will/ would VP go home
• ???? ?-Non Modals ??????
• ???? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????
• ??????
• John is VP writing a letter to Mary
• The letter was VP written by John

103
???????? ?????? ???????????

• ?? ??? ????? ??? ??? ????????? ?? ????????
  ??????
• ???? ??? Modals ?? Non-Modals.
• ????? ??????.
• ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ??
• ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????
  ??.