Human Impact on the Atmosphere Chapters 18 and 19 Living in the Environment, 11th Edition, Miller

1
Human Impact on the AtmosphereChapters 18 and
19Living in the Environment, 11th Edition,
Miller

• Advanced Placement Environmental Science
• La Canada High School
• Dr. E

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Pollution Thorpe, Gary S., M.S., (2002).
Barrons How to prepare for the AP Environmental
Science Advanced Placement Exam

• The term Smog (smoke and fog) was first used in
  1905 to describe sulfur dioxide emission
• In 1952, severe pollution took the lives of 5000
  people in London
• It isnt pollution thats harming the
  environment. Its the impurities in our air and
  water that are doing it.
  
  Former U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle

www.aqmd.gov/pubinfo/ 97annual.html
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TheCleanAirAct

• Congress found
• Most people now live in urban areas
• Growth results in air pollution
• Air pollution endangers living things
• It decided
• Prevention and control at the source was
  appropriate
• Such efforts are the responsibility of states
  and local authorities
• Federal funds and leadership are essential for
  the development of effective programs

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Clean Air Act

• Originally signed 1963
• States controlled standards
• 1970 Uniform Standards by Federal Govt.
• Criteria Pollutants
• Primary Human health risk
• Secondary Protect materials, crops, climate,
  visibility, personal comfort

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Clean Air Act

• 1990 version
• Acid rain, urban smog, toxic air pollutants,
  ozone depletion, marketing pollution rights,
  VOCs
• 1997 version
• Reduced ambient ozone levels
• Cost 15 billion/year -gt save 15,000 lives
• Reduce bronchitis cases by 60,000 per year
• Reduce hospital respiratory admission 9000/year

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Clean Air Act

• President George W. Bush signed rules amending
  Clean Air Act that allowed power plants and other
  industries to increase pollution significantly
  without adopting control measures

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http//www.cnn.com/2003/LAW/12/24/bush.clean.air.a
p/index.html
Appeals court blocks Bush clean air
changes Wednesday, December 24, 2003 Posted 210
PM EST (1910 GMT)

• WASHINGTON (AP) -- A federal appeals court on
  Wednesday blocked new Bush administration changes
  to the Clean Air Act from going into effect the
  next day, in a challenge from state attorneys
  general and cities that argued they would harm
  the environment and public health.

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Clean Air Act http//www.epa.gov/air/oaq_caa.html

• Title I - Air Pollution Prevention and Control
• Part A - Air Quality and Emission Limitations
• Part B - Ozone Protection (replaced by Title VI)
• Part C - Prevention of Significant Deterioration
  of Air Quality
• Part D - Plan Requirements for Nonattainment
  Areas
• Title II - Emission Standards for Moving Sources
• Part A - Motor Vehicle Emission and Fuel
  Standards
• Part B - Aircraft Emission Standards
• Part C - Clean Fuel Vehicles
• Title III - General
• Title IV - Acid Deposition Control
• Title V - Permits
• Title VI - Stratospheric Ozone Protection

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Outdoor Air Pollution
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Major Sources of Primary Pollutants

• Stationary Sources
• Combustion of fuels for power and heat Power
  Plants
• Other burning such as Wood crop burning or
  forest fires
• Industrial/ commercial processes
• Solvents and aerosols
• Mobile Sources
• Highway cars, trucks, buses and motorcycles
• Off-highway aircraft, boats, locomotives, farm
  equipment, RVs, construction machinery, and lawn
  mowers

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54 million metric tons from mobile sources in 1990
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Human Impact on Atmosphere

• Burning Fossil Fuels
• Using Nitrogen fertilizers and burning fossil
  fuels
• Refining petroleum and burning fossil fuels
• Manufacturing

• Adds CO2 and O3 to troposphere
• Global Warming
• Altering Climates
• Produces Acid Rain
• Releases NO, NO2, N2O, and NH3 into troposphere
• Produces acid rain
• Releases SO2 into troposphere
• Releases toxic heavy metals (Pb, Cd, and As) into
  troposphere

www.dr4.cnrs.fr/gif-2000/ air/products.html
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Criteria Air Pollutants

• EPA uses six "criteria pollutants" as indicators
  of air quality
• Nitrogen Dioxide NO2
• Ozone ground level O3
• Carbon monoxide CO
• Lead Pb
• Particulate Matter PM10 (PM 2.5)
• Sulfur Dioxide SO2
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
• EPA established for each concentrations above
  which adverse effects on health may occur

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Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

• Properties reddish brown gas, formed as fuel
  burnt in car, strong oxidizing agent, forms
  Nitric acid in air
• Effects acid rain, lung and heart problems,
  decreased visibility (yellow haze), suppresses
  plant growth
• Sources fossil fuels combustion, power plants,
  forest fires, volcanoes, bacteria in soil
• Class Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
• EPA Standard 0.053 ppm

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Mobile Source Emissions Nitrogen Oxides
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Ozone (O3)

• Properties colorless, unpleasant odor, major
  part of photochemical smog
• Effects lung irritant, damages plants, rubber,
  fabric, eyes, 0.1 ppm can lower PSN by 50,
• Sources Created by sunlight acting on NOx and
  VOC , photocopiers, cars, industry, gas vapors,
  chemical solvents, incomplete fuel combustion
  products
• Class photochemical oxidants

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Ozone (O3)

• 10,000 to 15,000 people in US admitted to
  hospitals each year due to ozone-related illness
• Children more susceptible
• Airways narrower
• More time spent outdoors

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Mobile Source Emissions Hydrocarbons
Precursors to Ozone
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Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Properties colorless, odorless, heavier than
  air, 0.0036 of atmosphere
• Effects binds tighter to Hb than O2, mental
  functions and visual acuity, even at low levels
• Sources incomplete combustion of fossil fuels 60
  - 95 from auto exhaust
• Class carbon oxides (CO2, CO)
• EPA Standard 9 ppm
• 5.5 billion tons enter atmosphere/year

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Mobile Source Emissions - CO
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Lead (Pb)

• Properties grayish metal
• Effects accumulates in tissue affects kidneys,
  liver and nervous system (children most
  susceptible) mental retardation possible
  carcinogen 20 of inner city kids have high
• Sources particulates, smelters, batteries
• Class toxic or heavy metals
• EPA Standard 1.5 ug/m3
• 2 million tons enter atmosphere/year

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Suspended Particulate Matter (PM10)

• Properties particles suspended in air (lt10 um)
• Effects lung damage, mutagenic, carcinogenic,
  teratogenic
• Sources burning coal or diesel, volcanoes,
  factories, unpaved roads, plowing, lint, pollen,
  spores, burning fields
• Class SPM dust, soot, asbestos, lead, PCBs,
  dioxins, pesticides
• EPA Standard 50 ug/m3 (annual mean)

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Mobile Source Emissions Fine Particulate Matter
(PM2.5)
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Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

• Properties colorless gas with irritating odor
• Effects produces acid rain (H2SO4), breathing
  difficulties, eutrophication due to sulfate
  formation, lichen and moss are indicators
• Sources burning high sulfur coal or oil,
  smelting or metals, paper manufacture
• Class sulfur oxides
• EPA Standard 0.3 ppm (annual mean)
• Combines with water and NH4 to increase soil
  fertility

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VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds)

• Properties organic compounds (hydrocarbons) that
  evaporate easily, usually aromatic
• Effects eye and respiratory irritants
  carcinogenic liver, CNS, or kidney damage
  damages plants lowered visibility due to brown
  haze global warming
• Sources vehicles (largest source), evaporation
  of solvents or fossil fuels, aerosols, paint
  thinners, dry cleaning
• Class HAPs (Hazardous Air Pollutants)
• Methane
• Benzene
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), etc.
• Concentrations indoors up to 1000x outdoors
• 600 million tons of CFCs

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Other Air Pollutants

• Carbon dioxide
• ChloroFluoroCarbons
• Formaldehyde
• Benzene
• Asbestos
• Manganese
• Dioxins
• Cadmium
• Others not yet fully characterized

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Formation Intensity

• Factors
• Local climate (inversions, air pressure,
  temperature, humidity)
• Topography (hills and mountains)
• Population density
• Amount of industry
• Fuels used by population and industry for
  heating, manufacturing, transportation, power
• Weather rain, snow,wind
• Buildings (slow wind speed)
• Mass transit used
• Economics

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Thermal Inversion
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Smog Forms
...when polluted air is stagnant (weather
conditions, geographic location)
Los Angeles, CA
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Primary Pollutants
CO
CO2
Secondary Pollutants
SO2
NO
NO2
SO3
Most hydrocarbons
HNO3
H2SO4
Most suspended particles
H2O2
O3
PANs
and
salts
Most
Natural
Sources
Stationary
Mobile
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Photochemical Smog
UV radiation H2O O2
Primary Pollutants NO2 Hydrocarbons
Secondary Pollutants HNO3 O3 nitric
acid ozone Photochemical Smog
Auto Emissions
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Solar radiation
Photochemical Smog
Ultraviolet radiation
NO Nitric oxide
O2 Molecular oxygen
O Atomic oxygen
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
H2O Water
Hydrocarbons
PANs Peroxyacyl nitrates
Aldehydes (e.g., formaldehyde)
O3 Ozone
HNO3 Nitric acid
P h o t o c h e m i c a l S m o g
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Indoor Air Pollution
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Why is indoor air quality important?

• 70 to 90 of time spent indoors, mostly at home
• Many significant pollution sources in the home
  (e.g. gas cookers, paints and glues)
• Personal exposure to many common pollutants is
  driven by indoor exposure
• Especially important for susceptible groups
  e.g. the sick, old and very young

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Exposure

• Time spent in various environments in US and
  less-developed countries

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House of Commons Select Committee Enquiry on
Indoor Air Pollution (1991)

• There is evidence that 3 million people have
  asthma in the UK and this is increasing by 5
  per annum.
• Overall there appears to be a worryingly large
  number of health problems which could be
  connected with indoor pollution and which affect
  very large numbers of the population.
• The Committee recommends that the Government
  develop guidelines and codes of practice for
  indoor air quality in buildings which
  specifically identify exposure limits for an
  extended list of pollutants

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Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants

• Building materials
• Furniture
• Furnishings and fabrics
• Glues
• Cleaning products
• Other consumer products
• Combustion appliances (cookers and heaters)
• Open fires
• Tobacco smoking
• Cooking
• House dust mites, bacteria and moulds
• Outdoor air

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Important Indoor Air pollutants

• Nitrogen dioxide
• Carbon monoxide
• Formaldehyde
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
• House dust mites (and other allergens, e.g. from
  pets)
• Environmental tobacco smoke
• Fine particles
• Chlorinated organic compounds (e.g. pesticides)
• Asbestos and man-made mineral fibres
• Radon

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Health Effects

• Nitrogen dioxide
• Respiratory irritant
• Elevated risk of respiratory illness in children,
  perhaps resulting from increased susceptibility
  to respiratory infection inconsistent evidence
  for effects in adults
• Concentrations in kitchens can readily exceed WHO
  and EPA standards

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Health Effects

• Carbon monoxide
• An asphyxiant and toxicant
• Hazard of acute intoxication, mostly from
  malfunctioning fuel-burning appliances and
  inadequate or blocked flues
• Possibility of chronic effects of long-term
  exposure to non- lethal concentrations,
  particularly amongst susceptible groups

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Health Effects

• Formaldehyde
• Sensory and respiratory irritant and sensitizer
• Possible increased risk of asthma and chronic
  bronchitis in children at higher exposure levels
• Individual differences in sensory and other
  transient responses
• Caution over rising indoor concentrations

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Health Effects

• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
• Occur in complex and variable mixtures
• Main health effects relate to comfort and
  well-being, but benzene (and other VOCs) are
  carcinogenic
• Concern about possible role of VOCs in the
  aetiology of multiple chemical sensitivity also
  implicated in sick building syndrome

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Health Effects

• House dust mites
• House dust mites produce Der p1 allergen, a
  potent sensitizer
• Good evidence of increased risk of sensitization
  with increasing allergen exposure, but this does
  not necessarily lead to asthma
• Small reductions in exposure will not necessarily
  lead to reduced incidence and/or symptoms
• Indoor humidity is important

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Health Effects

• Fungi and bacteria
• Dampness and mould-growth linked to self-reported
  respiratory conditions, but little convincing
  evidence for association between measured
  airborne fungi and respiratory disease
• Insufficient data to relate exposure to
  (non-pathogenic) bacteria to health effects in
  the indoor environment

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Health Effects

• Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)
• Sudden infant death syndrome
• Lower respiratory tract illness
• Middle ear disease
• Asthma
• 12 million children exposed to secondhand smoke
  in homes

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Health Effects

• Fine particles
• Consistent evidence that exposure to small
  airborne particles (e.g. PM10) in ambient air can
  impact on human health mechanisms uncertain
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and
  Cardiovascular Disease patients and asthmatics
  probably at extra risk
• Relative importance of indoor sources is unknown

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Health Effects

• Radon
• Can cause lung cancer
• Estimated that 7,000 to 30,000 Americans die each
  year from radon-induced lung cancer
• Only smoking causes more lung cancer deaths
• Smokers more at risk than non-smokers

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Radon Risk Non-Smoker
Radon Level (pCI/L) If 1000 people who did not smoke were exposed to this level over a lifetime.. About X would get lung cancer This risk of cancer from radon exposure compares to What to do
20 8 Being killed in a violent crime Fix your home
10 4 Fix your home
8 3 10x risk of dying in a plane crash Fix your home
4 2 Risk of drowning Fix your home
2 lt1 Risk of dying in a home fire Fix your home
1.3 lt1 Average indoor radon level Fix your home
.4 lt1 Average indoor radon level Fix your home
If you are a former smoker, your risk may be
higher
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Radon Risk Smoker
Radon Level (pCI/L) If 1000 people who smoke were exposed to this level over a lifetime.. About X would get lung cancer This risk of cancer from radon exposure compares to What to do Stop smoking and
20 135 100x risk of drowning Fix your home
10 71 100x risk of dying in a home fire Fix your home
8 57 Fix your home
4 29 100x risk of dying in a plane crash Fix your home
2 15 2x the risk of dying in a car crash Fix your home
1.3 9 Average indoor radon level Fix your home
.4 3 Average indoor radon level Fix your home
If you are a former smoker, your risk may be lower
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Radon

• 55 of our exposure to radiation comes from radon
• colorless, tasteless, odorless gas
• formed from the decay of uranium
• found in nearly all soils
• levels vary

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(From http//www.epa.gov/iaq/radon/zonemap.html)
Zone pCi/L 1 gt4 2 2 - 4
3 lt2
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Radon How it Enters Buildings

• Cracks in solid floors
• Construction joints
• Cracks in walls
• Gaps in suspended floors
• Gaps around service pipes
• Cavities inside walls
• The water supply

http//www.epa.gov/iaq/radon/pubs/citguide.htmlho
wdoes
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Radon Reducing the Risks

• Sealing cracks in floors and walls
• Simple systems using pipes and fans
• More information http//www.epa.gov/iaq/radon/pub
  s/consguid.htmlreductiontech

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• Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)
• vs
• Building Related Illness (BRI)

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Sick Building Syndrome

• A persistent set of symptoms in gt 20 population
• Causes(s) not known or recognizable
• Complaints/Symptoms relieved after exiting
  building

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Complaints/Symptoms

• Headaches
• Fatigue
• Reduced Mentation
• Irritability
• Eye, nose or throat irritation

• Dry Skin
• Nasal Congestion
• Difficulty Breathing
• Nose Bleeds
• Nausea

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Building Related Illness

• Clinically Recognized Disease
• Exposure to indoor air pollutants
• Recognizable Causes

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Clinically Recognized Diseases

• Pontiac Fever Legionella spp.
• Legionnaire's Disease
• Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis
• Humidifier Fever
• Asthma
• Allergy
• Respiratory Disease
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

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Ventilation
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Movement of Air Into / Out of Homes

• Amount of air available to dilute pollutants
• important indicator of the likely contaminant
  concentration
• Indoor air can mix with outside air by three
  mechanisms
• infiltration
• natural ventilation
• forced ventilation

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Movement of Air Into / Out of Homes

• Infiltration
• natural air exchange that occurs between a
  building and its environment when the doors and
  windows are closed
• leakage through holes or openings in the building
  envelope
• pressure induced
• due to pressure differentials inside and outside
  of the building
• especially important with cracks and other
  openings in wall

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Movement of Air Into / Out of Homes

• Infiltration
• Temperature induced (stack effect)
• driven by air movement through holes in floors,
  ceilings
• in winter, warm air in a building wants to rise,
  exits through cracks in ceiling and draws in

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Movement of Air Into / Out of Homes

• Natural ventilation
• air exchange that occurs when windows or doors
  are opened to increase air circulation
• Forced ventilation
• mechanical air handling systems used to induce
  air exchange using fans and blowers
• Trade-offs
• cut infiltration to decrease heating and cooling
  costs vs. indoor air quality problems

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Movement of Air Into / Out of Homes

• Infiltration rates
• Influenced by
• how fast wind is blowing, pressure differentials
• temperature differential between inside and
  outside of house
• location of leaks in building envelope

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Greenhouse Effect
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http//royal.okanagan.bc.ca/mpidwirn/atmosphereand
climate/cascade.html
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Natural Greenhouse Effect

• With Greenhouse Effect average global temperature
  60 degrees
• Without it, Earth would be a frigid planet, with
  average temperature around zero degrees
  Fahrenheit

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Global Warming
Increased Greenhouse Gases in the Troposphere
Excess heat
CO2 CFCs CH4
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Greenhouse Gases
Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide Ozone CFCs
Hydrofluorocarbons Perfluorinated carbons Water
vapour
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Is this increase in temperature natural or ?
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Measurements made at Mauna Loa, Hawaii elevation
12,000 feet
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Contribution to Greenhouse Effect
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Methane

• Core samples taken from old ocean sediment layers
  have been used to trace back in time the climate
  changes that have occurred over the past tens of
  millions of years
• short periods of only a few hundred years in the
  geological past when rapid increases of the
  Earth's temperature have occurred superimposed on
  top of the rise and fall of average temperatures
  over the longer term up to 15 degrees centigrade
  warmer than today.

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Methane

• Temperatures then fell back to the long term
  trend, the whole rise and fall only lasting a few
  hundred years.
• The most likely cause of this rapid global
  warming over such a short period is the release
  of methane into the atmosphere.
• Methane is 60 times more powerful than CO2 as a
  greenhouse gas
• Methane was released due to breakdown of material
  associated with permafrost

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Top Greenhouse Gas Emitters

• 19.1 - United States
• 9.9 - China
• 5.1 - Japan
• 4.3 - Brazil
• 3.8 - Germany
• 3.7 - Japan
• 2.4 - United Kingdom
• 1.9 - Indonesia
• 1.7 - Italy

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What impacts have occurred and are predicted to
occur from global warming?

• ?

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Atmosphere Impacts from Global Warming?

• Weather
• Ocean currents
• Sea level
• Water resources
• Biodiversity
• Forests
• Human health
• Agriculture
• Human demographics

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Direct manifestations

• Heat waves and periods of unusually warm weather
• Sea level rise and coastal flooding
• Glaciers melting
• Arctic and Antarctic warming with ice shelves
  breaking up
• Increase severity of weather
• Zooplankton are dying in the Pacific Ocean

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Heat wave kills 30, no relief in sight July
27, 1999 http//www
.cnn.com/WEATHER/9907/27/heat.wave.02/index.html

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Monster iceberg breaks off Antarctic ice shelf
May 10, 2002 http//www
.cnn.com/2002/TECH/space/05/09/iceberg.satellite/i
ndex.html

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Antarctica
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If all the ice on Greenland melted, world sea
levels would rise about six metres (20 feet)If
all the ice on the Antarctic continent melted,
sea levels would rise over 70 metres (230
feet)This is unlikely to happen, but small
increases will continue.
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Possible Consequences

• Spreading disease
• Earlier spring arrival
• Plant and animal range shifts and population
  declines
• Coral reef bleaching
• Downpours, heavy snowfalls, and flooding
• Droughts and fires

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Global warming may harm human health November
16, 1998 Climatic changes related to global
warming could foster dangerous outbreaks of
cholera, dengue fever and malaria,
http//www.cnn.com/TECH/science/9811/16/clima
te.health.enn/index.html

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Study Global warming spurs migrations
Thursday, January 2, 2003 Rising global
temperatures that have lured plants into early
bloom and birds to nest earlier in the spring are
altering the ranges and behavior of hundreds of
plant and animal species worldwide, two studies
conclude. http//www.cnn.com/2003/TEC
H/science/01/02/climate.migrations.ap/index.html

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Report Coral bleaching hits record level May
19, 1999 Global warming has been linked to an
unprecedented episode of coral bleaching in
1998, http//www.cnn.com/NATURE/9905/19/cora
l.bleaching.enn/index.html

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Vicious cycle Global warming feeds fire
potential November 2, 2000 Global warming may
greatly accelerate the fire cycle in the desert
ecosystem of North America, according to a study
published today in the journal Nature.
Elevated carbon dioxide levels, the result of
increased fossil fuel burning, can alter the
delicate balance of grasses in desert areas, the
report notes. This finding may have major
implications for the biodiversity and health of
desert ecosystems in the western United States.
"This could be a real problem for land
managers," said Stan Smith, a professor of
biology at the University of Nevada in Las Vegas
and lead author of the study.
http//www.cnn.com/2000/NATURE/11/02/global.warmin
g.enn/index.html

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http//www.soton.ac.uk/engenvir/environment/air/g
reenhouse.problems.html
107
Anomaly difference between actual value and
some mean value in this case the mean is a 30
year average
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Warmest Years on Record

• 1981
• 1983
• 1987
• 1988
• 1989
• 1990
• 1991

• 1994
• 1995
• 1996
• 1997
• 1998
• 1999
• 2000
• 2001

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Ozone Hole
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Understanding Ozone http//royal.okanagan.bc.ca/mp
idwirn/atmosphereandclimate/ozonehole.html

• Discovered in 1839 by German scientist Christian
  Friedrich Schonbein
• Pale blue, unstable molecule made of three oxygen
  atoms
• Vital to life in the stratosphere
• Harmful to plants and humans in the troposphere
• Concentration stratosphere ? up to 15 ppm at
  about 25 km
• Formed when atomic oxygen (O) from higher parts
  of the atmosphere collides with molecular oxygen
  (O2) in the stratosphere
• UV radiation splits the ozone back to O and O2
  and it can form another ozone molecule

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http//www-imk.fzk.de/topoz-iii/ataglanz/ozonbild.
html
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http//www-imk.fzk.de/topoz-iii/ataglanz/ozonzerst
.html
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The Ozone Hole

• First discovered in 1985 observations from
  Antarctica extend back into 1950s.
• Characterized as a rapid depletion of ozone over
  Antarctica during spring.
• Ozone hole season, Spring (August October)
• Ozone hole located over mainly over Antarctica.
• Ozone hole recovers by late December
• Ozone hole caused by human chemicals (CFCs)
• Ozone hole not present in early 1970s

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science.widener.edu/svb/ atmo_chem/oct15.html
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Ozone hole stabilizes October 17, 2001 WASHINGTON
(CNN) -- A hole in the Earth's
protective ozone layer
is about the same size as in the past three
years, according to scientists at
the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, who
predict it will hold steady in the near
future.
Satellite data show the hole
over Antarctica, which allows more
harmful solar radiation to reach
the Earth, peaked this year at about 10
million square miles (26 million square km),
roughly the size of North America.
http//www.cnn.com/2001/TECH/space/10/17/ozone.ho
le.size/index.html
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History of Ozone Depletion

• CFCs developed in 40s and 50s
• Refrigerants, propellants, fire retardants
• 1970s CFCs detected in atmosphere.
• Many of these have long atmospheric lifetimes
  (10s to 100s of years)
• 1974 Rowland and Molina propose that CFCs can
  destroy ozone in the stratosphere.
• CFCs broken apart by UV radiation forming
  chlorine which can destroy ozone quickly
• O3 Cl ? ClO O2 (Catalytic Reaction)
• ClOO ? ClO2

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Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs

• First produced by General Motors Corporation in
  1928, CFCs were created as a replacement to the
  toxic refrigerant ammonia
• CFCs have also been used as a propellant in spray
  cans, cleaner for electronics, sterilant for
  hospital equipment, and to produce the bubbles in
  Styrofoam

122

• CFCs are cheap to produce and very stable
  compounds, lasting up to 200 years in the
  atmosphere
• Many countries have recently passed laws banning
  nonessential use of these chemicals.
• Nevertheless, by 1988 some 320,000 metric tons
  of CFCs were used worldwide.

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Action of CFCs

• CFCs created at the Earth's surface drift slowly
  upward to the stratosphere where UV radiation
  from the sun causes their decomposition and the
  release of chlorine
• Chlorine in turn attacks the molecules of ozone
  converting them into oxygen molecules
• Cl O3 ClO O2
• ClO O Cl O2

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Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluorocarbon
(CFC) molecule, such as CFCl3, breaking off a
chlorine atom and leaving CFCl2.
Sun
Cl
Cl
Once free, the chlorine atom is off to attack
another ozone molecule and begin the cycle again.
C
Cl
F
UV radiation
Cl
Cl
O
O
A free oxygen atom pulls the oxygen atom off
the chlorine monoxide molecule to form O2.
The chlorine atom attacks an ozone (O3) molecule,
pulling an oxygen atom off it and leaving an
oxygen molecule (O2).
Cl
Cl
O
O
O
O
O
The chlorine atom and the oxygen atom join to
form a chlorine monoxide molecule (ClO)
Cl
O
O
O
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http//www.clas.ufl.edu/users/dlsmith/Lecture_11.h
tml
128

• A single chlorine atom removes about 100,000
  ozone molecules before it is taken out of
  operation by other substances

129
Low and Middle Latitudes

• Current measurements indicate that the amount of
  ozone in the stratosphere of the low and middle
  latitudes has decreased by about 3 with
  estimates that it will decrease by10 by 2025

130
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131
Harmful effects of UV radiation.

• Skin cancer (ultraviolet radiation can destroy
  acids in DNA)
• Cataracts and sun burning
• Suppression of immune systems
• Adverse impact on crops and animals
• Reduction in the growth of ocean phytoplankton
• Cooling of the Earth's stratosphere and possibly
  some surface climatic effect
• Degradation of paints and plastic material

132
matrix.ucdavis.edu/tumors/tradition/
gallery-ssmm.html
133
www.snec.com.sg/clinical_services/ cataract.asp
134
Conclusion

• Ozone Depletion Exists and effects certain areas
  of the Earth more than others
• Currently, one in five North Americans and one in
  two Australians will develop some form of skin
  cancer in their lifetime
• With a sustained 10 decrease in stratospheric
  ozone, an additional 300,000 non-melanoma and
  4,500 melanoma skin cancers could be expected
  world-wide, according to UNEP estimates.

135
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136
Acid Deposition
137
Measuring Acid Rain

• Acid rain is measured using a "pH" scale.
• The lower a substance's pH, the more acidic it
  is.
• Pure water has a pH of 7.0.
• Normal rain is slightly acidic and has a pH of
  about 5.6
• Any rainfall has a pH value less than 5.6 is
  defined as acid rain
• As of the year 2000, the most acidic rain falling
  in the US has a pH of about 4.3.

138
Two Forms

• Wet
• Refers to acid rain, fog, sleet, cloud vapor and
  snow.

• Dry
• Refers to acidic gases and particles.

139
Compounds

• Two main contributers to acid deposition
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
• Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
• 66 of all sulfur dioxides and 25 of all
  nitrogen oxides comes from electric power
  generation that produces energy by burning fossil
  fuels.

140

• When gas pollutants e.g. sulphur dioxide,
  nitrogen dioxide dissolve in rain water, various
  acids are formed.

CO2 H2O ? H2CO3 (carbonic acid) SO2
H2O ? H2SO3 (sulphorous acid) NO2 H2O ? HNO2
(nitrous acid) HNO3 (nitric acid)
141
Causes of Acid Rain

• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
  are the primary causes of acid rain.
• In the US, About 2/3 of all SO2and 1/4 of all
  NOx comes from electric power generation that
  relies on burning fossil fuels like coal.

142
Acidic Precipitation
Primary Pollutants SO2 NO2
Secondary Pollutants H2SO4 HNO2 sulfuric
acid nitric acid
acidic precipitation
vegetation direct toxicity indirect health effects
water
Fossil fuels Power plants Industrial
emissions Auto emissions
soils leaching of minerals
sediments leaching aluminum
143
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144
Acidic Precipitation
Wind
Transformation to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and
nitric acid (HNO3)
Windborne ammonia gas and particles of cultivated
soil partially neutralize acids and form dry
sulfate and nitrate salts
Wet acid deposition (droplets of H2SO4 and HNO3
dissolved in rain and snow)
Dry acid deposition (sulfur dioxide gas and
particles of sulfate and nitrate salts)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NO
Nitric oxide (NO)
Acid fog
Farm
Lakes in deep soil high in limestone are buffered
Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone become acid
ic
Ocean
145
BIOL 349 Atmosphere
Fig. 17.10, p. 428
146
Sulphur dioxide emission (1997)
147
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148
Wet Acid Rain

• Acidic water flows over and through the ground,
  it affects a variety of plants and animals.

149
Dry Acid Rain

• Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and
  particles.
• About half of the acidity in theatmosphere falls
  back to earth through dry deposition.
• The wind blows these acidic
  particles and gases onto buildings, cars, homes,
  and trees.

http//svr1-pek.unep.net/soechina/images/acid.jpg
150
Increased Acidity

• Dry deposited gases and particles can also be
  washed from trees and other surfaces by
  rainstorms.
• The runoff water adds those acids to the acid
  rain, making the combination more acidic than the
  falling rain alone.

151
Effects of Acid Rain

• The strength of the effects depend on many
  factors
• How acidic the water is
• The chemistry and buffering capacity of the soils
  involved
• The types of fish, trees, and other living things
  that rely on the water

152
Effects of Acid Rain

• Has a variety of effects, including damage to
  forests and soils, fish and other living things,
  materials, and human health.
• Also reduces how far and how clearly we can see
  through the air, an effect called visibility
  reduction.
• Effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in the
  aquatic environments
• Most lakes and streams have a pH between 6 and 8

http//cica.indiana.edu/projects/Biology/movies.ht
ml
153
Buffering Capacity

• Acid rain primarily affects sensitive bodies of
  water, which are located in watersheds whose
  soils have a limited "buffering capacity
• Lakes and streams become acidic when the water
  itself and its surrounding soil cannot buffer the
  acid rain enough to neutralize it.

154

• In areas where buffering capacity is low, acid
  rain also releases aluminum from soils into lakes
  and streams aluminum is highly toxic to many
  species of aquatic organisms.

http//home.earthlink.net/photofish/fish_photos/s
w10_thumb.jpg
155
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156
Effects on Wildlife

• Generally, the young of most species are more
  sensitive to environmental conditions than
  adults.
• At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch.
• At lower pH levels, some adult fish die.
• Some acid lakes have no fish.

157
Effects on Wildlife

• Both low pH and increased aluminum levels are
  directly toxic to fish.
• In addition, low pH and increased aluminum levels
  cause chronic stress that may not kill individual
  fish, but leads to lower body weight and smaller
  size and makes fish less able to compete for food
  and habitat.

158
Acid Rain and Forests

• Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly.
• Instead, it is more likely to weaken trees by
  damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients
  available to them, or exposing them to toxic
  substances slowly released from the soil.

159
Mongolia
Germany
160
Effects of Acid Rain
Great Smoky Mountains, NC
161
Nutrients

• Acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful
  minerals in the soil and then washes them away
  before trees and other plants can use them to
  grow.
• Acid rain also causes the release of substances
  that are toxic to trees and plants, such as
  aluminum, into the soil.

162
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163
Air Pollution Prevention
164
Specific Air Pollution Treatment Technology

• Traditional
• Move factory to remote location
• Build taller smokestack so wind blows pollution
  elsewhere
• New
• Biofiltration vapors pumped through soil where
  microbes degrade
• High-energy destruction high-voltage electricity
  
• Membrane separation diffusion of organic vapors
  through membrane
• Oxidation High temperature combustor

165
Absorption
166
Adsorption
167
Combustion
168
Cyclone
169
Filtration
170
Electrostatic Precipitator
171
Liquid Scrubber
172
Sulfur Dioxide Control
http//www.apt.lanl.gov/projects/cctc/factsheets/p
uair/adflugasdemo.html
173
Air Pollution Results
174
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175
Comparison of 1970 and 1999 Emissions
176
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177
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178
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179
Number of People Living in Counties with Air
Quality Concentrations Above the Level of the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in
1999
180
Trends in Sulfur Dioxide Emissions Following
Implementation of Phase I of the Acid Rain
Program Total State-level Utility SO2 (1980,
1990, 1999)
181
FiftyYearsofAirPollution
Figures are in millions of metric tons per year
182
MobileSourcesThe LastTen Years
VOCs CO NOx PM10 SOx Lead
-3
-8
-10
-24
-29

• Percent reductions shown are based on estimates
  of tons/year from mobile sources over the 1981 -
  1990 time period

-85
183
Who isAffected byAir Pollution?
63
Over 74 million people are subjected to high
levels of at least one of these pollutants
22
19
9
5
1
Ozone CO NO2 PM10 SO2 Lead

• Millions of people living in counties with air
  quality that exceeds each NAAQS (1990 data)

184
Milestonesin theControlofAutomotiveEmissions

• 1952 - Autos linked to air pollution
• 1963 - Original CAA, PCV valves
• 1968 - HC CO exhaust controls
• 1970 - CAA amendments, EPA formed
• 1971 - Evaporative controls
• 1972 - First I/M Program
• 1973 - NOx exhaust controls
• 1975 - First catalytic converters
• 1981 - New cars meet statutory limits
• 1989 - Volatility limits on gasoline
• 1990 - New CAA Amendments

185

• 1987 Montreal Protocol CFC emissions should be
  reduced by 50 by the year 2000 (they had been
  increasing 3 per year.)
• 1990 London amendments production of CFCs,
  CCl4, and halons should cease entirely by 2000.
• 1992 Copenhagen agreements phase-out
  accelerated to 1996.

186
What is the Kyoto Protocol?

• How did we get to Kyoto?
• What are the goals of Kyoto?
• Is Kyoto enough?

187
Steps to Kyoto

• 1985 International Council of Scientific Unions
  (Prof. Bert Bolin)
• Many important economic and social decisions are
  being made today on long term projects, all based
  on the assumption that past climatic data,
  without modification, are a reliable guide to the
  future. This is no longer a good assumption

188
Steps to Kyoto

• 1988 - Toronto - creation of IPCC
• warmest summer to date, international meeting in
  Toronto
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change formed
• 1990 - First report (FAR)
• overview of the current science of climate change

189
IPCC

• IPCC headed by Prof. Bert Bolin
• 3 working groups
• Climate Science
• Climate Impacts
• Response Strategies
• 1992 - FAR used in Earth Summit meeting in Rio -
  United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
  Change

190
IPCC

• 1995 IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR)
  completed, published in 1996
• WG I Climate Science
• WG II Impact, Adaptation and Mitigation
• WG III Economic and Social Dimensions
• The balance of evidence suggests a discernible
  human influence on global climate

191
IPCC

• 1997 Kyoto meeting - binding targets set
• culmination of a series of meetings since Rio
  (1992)
• 2001 Bonn - rescuing Kyoto
• 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR)
• WG I Climate Science
• WG II Vulnerabilities, Impacts and Adaptation
• WG III Mitigation

192
IPCC

• TAR (2001)
• There is new and stronger evidence that most of
  the warming observed over the last 50 years is
  attributable to human activities (WG I)
• Global losses in weather related natural
  disasters have increased ten-fold from the 1960s
  to the 1990s, and that a portion of this increase
  must be due to increases in frequency and
  intensity of some extreme events. (WG II)
• most of the opportunities to reduce emissions
  will come from energy efficiency gains and in
  reducing release of greenhouse gases from
  industry (WG III)

193
Goals of Kyoto Protocol

• Reduction of greenhouse gases to below 1990
  levels
• 5.2 world wide reduction on average by
  2008-2012
• 6 for Canada by 2008-2012
• When sufficient countries ratify the Protocol (at
  least 55 countries comprising at least 55 of
  emissions), Protocol comes into effect
• USA - 25 of emissions

194
Kyoto Emissions Agreement
195
Annex B Countries Annex B Countries Non Annex B Countries Non Annex B Countries
  Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions (million metric tonnes C) Bunkers (million metric tonnes C) Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions (million metric tonnes C) Bunkers (million metric tonnes C)
1990 3851 78 2126 41
1991 3751 88 2306 41
1992 3663 92 2291 43
1993 3610 92 2341 48
1994 3607 92 2487 50
1995 3624 95 2607 52
1996 3674 95 2704 58
1997 3696 97 2775 61
1998 3690 100 2756 62
Source Gregg Marland and Tom Boden (CDIAC, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory).
196
Greenhouse Effect - Conclusion

• Since 1700, humans have directly or indirectly
  caused the concentration of the major greenhouse
  gases to increase
• Scientists predict that this increase may enhance
  the greenhouse effect making the planet warmer by
  0.3 to 0.6 degrees Celsius

197
Cost of Regular Gasoline

• 3.80 Great Britain
• 3.80 The Netherlands
• 3.74 Italy
• 3.69 Belgium
• 3.62 France
• 3.57 Germany
• 3.20 Japan
• 1.39 United States
• in U.S. dollars as of October 13, 1997

198
History of Global Warming

• 1904 Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius was,
  according to NASA, "the first person to
  investigate the effect that doubling atmospheric
  carbon dioxide would have on global climate."

199
History of Global Warming

• Arrhenius began studying rapid increases in
  anthropogenic carbon emissions, determining
  that "the slight percentage of carbonic acid in
  the atmosphere may, by the advances of industry,
  be changed to a noticeable degree in the course
  of a few centuries."

200
History of Global Warming

• The unique research of Arrhenius suggested that
  this increase could be beneficial, making Earth's
  climates "more equable" and stimulating plant
  growth and food production. Until about 1960,
  most scientists thought it implausible that
  humans could actually affect average global
  temperatures.

201
History of Global Warming

• 1950s Geophysicist Roger Revelle, with the help
  of Hans Suess, demonstrated that carbon dioxide
  levels in the air had increased as a result of
  the use of fossil fuels.

202
History of Global Warming

• 1965 Serving on the President's Science Advisory
  Committee Panel on Environmental Pollution in
  1965, Roger Revelle helped publish the first
  high-level government mention of global warming.
  The book-length report identified many of the
  environmental troubles the nation faced, and
  mentioned in a "subpanel report" the potential
  for global warming by carbon dioxide.

203
History of Global Warming

• 1977 "In 1977 the nonpartisan National Academy
  of Sciences issued a study called Energy and
  Climate, which carefully suggested that the
  possibility of global warming 'should lead
  neither to panic nor to complacency.'

204
History of Global Warming

• Rather, the study continued, it should 'engender
  a lively sense of urgency in getting on with the
  work of illuminating the issues that have been
  identified and resolving the scientific
  uncertainties that remain.'

205
History of Global Warming

• As is typical with National Academy studies, the
  primary recommendation was for more research."
  From "Breaking the Global-Warming Gridlock" by
  Daniel Sarewitz and Roger Pielke Jr., THE
  ATLANTIC, July 2000

206
History of Global Warming

• Roger Revelle chaired the National Academy Panel,
  which found that about forty percent of the
  anthropogenic carbon dioxide has remained in the
  atmosphere, two-thirds from fossil fuel and
  one-third from the clearing of forests. It is now
  known that carbon dioxide is one of the primary
  greenhouse gases that contributes to global
  warming and remains in the atmosphere for a
  century.

207
History of Global Warming

• 1980s Representative Al Gore (D-TN), who had
  been a student of Revelle's, co-sponsored the
  first Congressional hearings to study the
  implications of global warming and to encourage
  the development of environmental technologies to
  combat global warming.

208
History of Global Warming

• 1982 Roger Revelle published a widely-read
  article in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN addressing the
  rise in global sea level and the "relative role
  played by the melting of glaciers and ice sheets
  versus the thermal expansion of the warming
  surface waters."

209
History of Global Warming

• 1983 The Environmental Protection Agency
  released a report detailing some of the possible
  threats of the anthropogenic emission of carbon
  dioxide.

210
History of Global Warming

• 1988 NASA climate scientist James Hansen and his
  team reported to Congress on global warming,
  explaining, "the greenhouse warming should be
  clearly identifiable in the 1990s" and that "the
  temperature changes are sufficiently large to
  have major impacts on people and other parts of
  the biosphere, as shown by computed changes in
  the frequency of extreme events and comparison
  with previous climate trends."

211
History of Global Warming

• With the increased awareness of global warming
  issues, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
  Change (IPCC) was established by the World
  Meteorological Organization and the United
  Nations Environment Programme to assess
  scientific, technical and socio-economic
  information relevant for the understanding of
  climate change, its potential impacts and options
  for adaptation and mitigation. The IPCC was the
  first international effort of this scale to
  address environmental issues.

212
History of Global Warming

• 1990 Congress passed and President George Bush
  signed Public Law 101-606 "The Global Change
  Research Act of 1990. The purpose of the
  legislation was "to require the establishment of
  a United States Global Change Research Program
  aimed at understanding and responding to global
  change, including the cumulative effects of human
  activities and natural processes on the
  environment, to promote discussions towards
  international protocols in global change
  research, and for other purposes."

213
History of Global Warming

• As part of the Act, the Global Change Research
  Information Office (GCRIO) was established "to
  disseminate to foreign governments, businesses,
  and institutions, as well as citizens of foreign
  countries, scientific research information
  available in the United States which would be
  useful in preventing, mitigating, or adapting to
  the effects of global change. The office began
  formal operation in 1993.

214
History of Global Warming

• 1992 In June of 1992, over 100 government
  leaders, representatives from 170 countries, and
  some 30,000 participants met in Rio de Janeiro at
  the U.N. Conference on Environment and
  Development (UNCED or the "Earth Summit").

215
History of Global Warming

• There, an international assembly formally
  recognized the need to integrate economic
  development and environmental protection into the
  goal of sustainable development.

216
History of Global Warming

• 1997 In December, 1997, more than 160 nations
  met in Kyoto, Japan, to negotiate binding
  limitations on greenhouse gases for the developed
  nations, pursuant to the objectives of the
  Framework Convention on Climate Change of 1992.

217
History of Global Warming

• The outcome of the meeting was the Kyoto
  Protocol, in which the developed nations agreed
  to limit their greenhouse gas emissions, relative
  to the levels emitted in 1990. The United States
  agreed to reduce emissions from 1990 levels by 7
  percent during the period 2008 to 2012.

218
History of Global Warming

• 1997 In December, 1997, more than 160 nations
  met in Kyoto, Japan, to negotiate binding
  limitations on greenhouse gases for the developed
  nations, pursuant to the objectives of the
  Framework Convention on Climate Change of 1992.

219
History of Global Warming

• The outcome of the meeting was the Kyoto
  Protocol, in which the developed nations agreed
  to limit their greenhouse gas emissions, relative
  to the levels emitted in 1990.
• The United States agreed to reduce emissions from
  1990 levels by 7 percent during the period 2008
  to 2012.

220
History of Global Warming

• Also that year, the United States Senate
  unanimously passed the Hagel-Byrd Resolution
  notifying the Clinton Administration that the
  Senate would not ratify any treaty that would (a)
  impose mandatory greenhouse gas emissions
  reductions for the United States without also
  imposing such reductions for developing nations,
  or (b) result in serious harm to our economy.

221
History of Global Warming

• 2001 The IPCC released its third assessment
  report, concluding on the basis of "new and
  stronger evidence that most of the observed
  warming over the last 50 years is attributable to
  human activities." They also observed that "the
  globally averaged surface temperature is
  projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 degrees
  Celsius over the period 1990 to 2100."

222
History of Global Warming

• The same year, President George W. Bush announced
  that the United States would not ratify the Kyoto
  Protocol. The Protocol is now in limbo until one
  of the two crucial holdouts Russia or the
  United States will ratify the treaty.

223
History of Global Warming

• 2003 Senator John McCain (R-AZ) and Senator
  Joseph Lieberman (D-CT) co-sponsored a proposal
  for mandatory caps on "greenhouse gas" emissions
  from utilities and other industries.

224
History of Global Warming

• Although the proposal was rejected in the Senate
  by a margin of 55 to 43, it was the Senators'
  first attempt to garner Senate attention for the
  issue of global warming, and McCain and Lieberman
  were encouraged by the support for the measure.