Categories of Research

1
Research Methods

• Categories of Research

2
Categories of Research

• There are many different ways to classify
  research
• By type
• By objective
• By form
• By reasoning

3
Categories of Research

• By type
• Primary research, collection of data that does
  not yet exist
• Secondary research, summary, collation and/or
  synthesis of existing research

4
Categories of Research - Type Primary Research

• Also called field research.
• It involves the collection of data that does not
  already exist, which is research to collect
  original data.
• Primary Research is often undertaken after the
  researcher has gained some insight into the issue
  by collecting secondary data.
• This can be through numerous forms of data
  collection, including questionnaires, direct
  observation and interviews amongst others.

5
Categories of Research - Type Secondary Research

• Also called desk research.
• It involves the summary, collation and/or
  synthesis of existing research rather than
  primary research, where data is collected from,
  for example, research subjects or experiments.
• The principal methodology in secondary research
  is the systematic review, commonly using
  meta-analytic statistical techniques, although
  other methods of synthesis, like realist reviews
  and meta-narrative reviews, have been developed
  in recent years.
• Secondary research can come from either internal
  or external sources.
• The proliferation of web search engines has
  increased opportunities to conduct secondary
  research.

6
Categories of Research

• By objective
• Qualitative research, understanding of human
  behaviour and the reasons that govern such
  behaviour
• Quantitative research, systematic empirical
  investigation of quantitative properties and
  phenomena and their relationships
• Mixed methods research, uses a combination of
  quantitative and qualitative methods for data
  collection and analysis.

7
Categories of Research Objective Qualitative
Research (1/2)

• It aims to gather an in-depth understanding of
  human behaviour and the reasons that govern such
  behaviour.
• The qualitative method investigates the why and
  how of decision making, not just what, where,
  when.
• Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often
  needed.
• Qualitative methods produce information only on
  the particular cases studied, and any more
  general conclusions are only hypotheses
  (informative guesses).
• Quantitative methods can be used to verify which
  of such hypotheses are true.

8
Categories of Research Objective Qualitative
Research (2/2)

• Helps us flesh out the story and develop a deeper
  understanding of a topic.
• Often contrasted to quantitative research.
• Together they give us the bigger picture.
• Good examples of qualitative research are
  face-to-face interviews, focus groups and site
  visits.

9
Categories of Research Objective Quantitative
Research (1/2)

• It refers to the systematic empirical
  investigation of quantitative properties and
  phenomena and their relationships.
• The objective of quantitative research is to
  develop and employ mathematical models, theories
  and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.
• The process of measurement is central to
  quantitative research because it provides the
  fundamental connection between empirical
  observation and mathematical expression of
  quantitative relationships.

10
Categories of Research Objective Quantitative
Research (2/2)

• Involves information or data in the form of
  numbers.
• Allows us to measure or to quantify things.
• Respondents dont necessarily give numbers as
  answers - answers are analysed as numbers.
• Good example of quantitative research is the
  survey.

11
Categories of Research Objective Mixed Methods
Research

• Using a combination of quantitative and
  qualitative methods for data collection and
  analysis.
• Capitalises on the strengths of each approach and
  offsets their different weaknesses.
• Also provides a more comprehensive answer to
  research questions, going beyond the limitations
  of a single approach.

12
Categories of Research

• By form
• Exploratory research, which structures and
  identifies new problems
• Constructive research, which develops solutions
  to an existing problem
• Empirical research, which tests the feasibility
  of a solution using empirical evidence

13
Categories of Research - FormExploratory
Research

• It is a type of research conducted for a problem
  that has not been clearly defined.
• Exploratory research helps determine the best
  research design, data collection method and
  selection of subjects.
• It should draw definitive conclusions only with
  extreme caution.
• Given its fundamental nature, exploratory
  research often concludes that a perceived problem
  does not actually exist.

14
Categories of Research - Form Constructive
Research

• It is very commonly used in computer science
  research.
• The term construct is often used in this
  context to refer to the new contribution being
  developed.
• The construct can be a new theory, algorithm,
  model, software, or a framework.
• This type of approach demands a form of
  validation that doesnt need to be quite as
  empirically based as in other types of research
  like exploratory research.
• Nevertheless the conclusions have to be
  objectively argued and defined.
• This may involve evaluating the construct being
  developed analytically against some predefined
  criteria or performing some benchmark tests with
  the prototype.

15
Categories of Research - Form Empirical Research

• A way of gaining knowledge by direct observation
  or experience.
• It is used to answer empirical questions, which
  must be precisely defined and answerable with
  data (e.g., "Does listening to music during
  learning have an effect on later memory?").
  Usually, a researcher has a certain theory
  regarding the topic under investigation. Based on
  this theory some statements, or hypotheses, will
  be proposed (e.g., "Listening to music has a
  negative effect on learning."). From these
  hypotheses predictions about specific events are
  derived (e.g., "People who study while listening
  to music will remember less on a later test than
  people who study in silence.").
• These predictions can then be tested with a
  suitable experiment.
• Depending on the outcomes of the experiment, the
  theory on which the hypotheses and predictions
  were based will be supported or not.

16
Categories of Research

• By reasoning
• Deductive reasoning, is going from the general to
  the specific
• Inductive reasoning, is going from the specific
  to the general

17
Categories of Research Reasoning Deductive
Reasoning

• Going from the general to the specific
• E.g.
• 1. All men are mortal. (premise)2. Socrates was
  a man. (premise)3. Socrates was mortal.
  (conclusion)
• Thus, the conclusion follows necessarily from the
  premises and inferences. In this way, it is
  supposed to be a definitive proof of the truth of
  the claim

18
Categories of Research Reasoning Inductive
Reasoning

• Going from the specific to the general
• e.g.
• 1. Socrates was Greek. (premise)2. Most Greeks
  eat fish. (premise)3. Socrates ate fish.
  (conclusion)
• An inductive argument is one in which the
  premises are supposed to support the conclusion
  in such a way that if the premises are true, it
  is probable that the conclusion would be true.
• BUT WE WILL RECALL...

19
Categories of Research Reasoning Inductive
Reasoning

• General statements (theories) have to be based on
  empirical observations, which are subsequently
  generalized into statements which can either be
  regarded as true or probably true.
• The classical example goes from a series of
  observations
• Swan no. 1 was white,
• Swan no. 2 was white,
• Swan no. 3 was white,
• to the general statement All swans are white.
• Proof by Induction

20
Research Paradigms
John W. Creswell, Research Methods, Chapter 1,
pages 5-11.
21
Research Paradigms

• Before a researcher starts to develop an
  experiment they must first make a declaration and
  indicate what their philosophical views are on
  the nature and purpose and research.
• Different researchers even within the same
  discipline have very distinct views what the
  point of doing research is, and how to interpret
  the results of an experiment, so they have to be
  up front about their views.

22
Research Paradigms

• There are various terms to describe these
  differences in views, including
• Paradigm
• Worldview
• Epistemologies and ontologies
• Broadly conceived research methodologies
• Since weve already looked at Kuhns work, well
  stick with the term paradigm.

23
Research Paradigms

• The four main paradigms we will consider for this
  class are
• Postpositivism
• Social Constructivism
• Advocacy and Participatory
• Pragmatism

24
Postpositivism
25

• Karl Popper
• Born 28 July 1902
• Died 17 September 1994
• Born in Vienna, Austria
• Philosopher and a professor at the London School
  of Economics

26
Postpositivism

• This is closest to the traditional scientific
  method.
• Specifically as viewed by Karl Popper.
• You can use experiments to measure and analyse
  how the objective world around us works, but the
  results are subject to considerations.

27
Postpositivism

• If the positivists believe that using science we
  can measure, classify and understand, then the
  postpositivists suggest that this is true to a
  certain extent, but that we must be carful not to
  forget that a lot of our interpretation may be
  based on assumptions and conjectures, and that we
  need to be aware of this.
• This approach focuses on the quantitative
  descriptors.

28
Postpositivism

• Postpositivists focus on cause and effect and are
  thus deterministic.
• So they focus of finding the causes that could
  have produces the specific outcomes of an
  experiment
• They also have a reductionistic view in the sense
  that they want to reduce the causes to into a
  small, discrete set of ideas to test.

29
Postpositivism

• The postpositivists inherently believe that there
  are laws and theories that govern the world and
  that they can be identified and tested using the
  scientific method.
• So the postpositivist starts with a theory,
  collects data and this either supports or refutes
  the theory, which may then result in the theory
  being revised before additional tests are made.

30
Social Constructivism
31

• Karl Mannheim
• Born March 27, 1893
• Died January 9, 1947
• Born in Budapest, Hungary
• Sociologist who was one of the founding fathers
  of classical sociology.

32
Social Constructivism

• This view is typically seen in qualitative
  research
• The key assumption is that individuals seek
  understanding of the world the live and work in
• This view comes from the work of Karl Mannheim
  and others.

33
Social Constructivism

• These individuals develop subjective meanings of
  their experiences meanings directed towards
  certain objects and things.
• These meanings are varied and multiple, which
  leads the researcher to look at a range of views
  rather than reducing things down to a few
  categories.
• This approach focuses on the qualitative
  descriptors.

34
Social Constructivism

• Thus the researchers main goals is to allow the
  participants to construct their own meaning of
  the situation, often negotiated socially and
  historically.
• The social element means that meanings are
  constructed through interaction with others.
• The researcher also acknowledges that they
  themselves are shaped by their backgrounds and
  their interpretation flows from their personal,
  cultural and historical experiences.

35
Social Constructivism

• The more open-ended the questioning is, the
  better.
• The researcher listens carefully to what the
  participants do in their life settings.
• The research process is qualitative and largely
  inductive.
• The objective is to interpret others meanings of
  the world, rather than to start out with a theory
  (as in postpositivism).

36
Advocacy and Participatory
37

• Jürgen Habermas
• Born June 18, 1929
• Age 81
• Born in Düsseldorf, Germany
• Sociologist and philosopher. He is best known for
  his theory on the concepts of 'communicative
  rationality' and the 'public sphere'.

38
Advocacy and Participatory

• This position highlights the view that imposed
  structural laws and theories does not take
  account of marginalised individuals in society or
  issues of social justice that need to be
  addressed.
• Draws on the works of Jürgen Habermas, as well as
  Karl Marx, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and
  Paulo Freire.

39
Advocacy and Participatory

• Advocates of this perspective feel that the
  constructivist view does not go far enough in
  terms of advocating an action agenda for the
  marginalised.
• Research needs to be tied in with politics and a
  political agenda. It should also create an action
  agenda for reform.
• The researchers begins with a social issue of the
  day as the focal point of the study.

40
Advocacy and Participatory

• The researcher must proceed collaboratively so as
  not to further marginalise participants.
• In this way the participants may help design
  questions, collect data, analyze information, and
  reap the rewards of the research.
• This approach creates a united voice for reform
  and change.
• It is often recursive or dialectical and focuses
  on bringing about change that is emancipatory.

41
Advocacy and Participatory

• This type of research focuses on the needs of
  groups in society that are marginalised
• The research will be analysed using a specific
  theoretical perspective (or theoretical lens)
  such as feminist perspectives, racialised
  discourses, critical theory, queer theory, and
  disability theory.

42
Pragmatism
43

• Charles Sanders Peirce
• Born September 10, 1839
• Died April 19, 1914
• Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts
• Philosopher, logician, mathematician, and
  scientist. He is known for his contributions to
  logic, mathematics, philosophy, and semiotics,
  and as the father of pragmatism.

44
Pragmatism

• A view that arises out of action, situations, and
  consequences.
• The key focus is what works, and getting
  solutions to problems.
• Derives from the work of Peirce, as well as
  William James, George Mead, and John Dewey.

45
Pragmatism

• Instead of focussing on methods, the researcher
  focuses on the problem and uses a range of
  approaches that help understand it.
• It is used often with mixed methods research.
• In this way researchers are free to choose the
  methods, the techniques, and the procedures of
  research that best meet their needs and purpose.

46
Pragmatism

• The researcher proceeds from the basic premise
  that the human capability of theorizing is
  integral to intelligent practice.
• Theory and practice are not separate spheres
  rather, theories and distinctions are tools or
  maps for finding our way in the world.
• As John Dewey put it, there is no question of
  theory versus practice but rather of intelligent
  practice versus uninformed, stupid practice.

47
Pragmatism

• The researcher does not have to focus on an
  absolute unity, there are many ways to collect
  data and analyse it.
• The truth is what works at the time, not based
  on the duality between independent reality and
  what is in the mind.
• So researchers should stop wondering about the
  nature or reality and get on with what works.

48
Summary
Postpositive Social Constructivism Advocacy and Participatory Pragmatism
Reality View Singular reality Multiple realities Political reality Single or Multiple realities
Research Distance and impartiality Sympathetic and close Collaboration Practical
Values Unbiased Biased Biased and negotiated Multiple stances
Process Deductive Inductive Participatory Combining
Language Formal Informal Advocating change Formal or informal
49
Research Methods

• Planning your research

50
Planning your research Key questions

• What do you want to know?
• How do you find out what you want to know?
• Where can you get the information?
• Who do you need to ask?
• When does your research need to be done?
• Why? (Getting the answer)

51
"I Keep Six Honest Serving Men ..."

• I keep six honest serving-men(They taught me all
  I knew)Their names are What and Why and When
  And How and Where and Who.I send them over land
  and sea,I send them east and westBut after
  they have worked for me,I give them all a rest.
• I let them rest from nine till five,For I am
  busy then,As well as breakfast, lunch, and
  tea,For they are hungry men.But different folk
  have different views I know a person small-She
  keeps ten million serving-men,Who get no rest at
  all!
• She sends'em abroad on her own affairs,From the
  second she opens her eyes-One million Hows, two
  million Wheres,And seven million Whys!

- Rudyard Kipling
52
Six Honest Serving Men

• What?
• How?
• Where?
• Who?
• When?
• Why?

53
Six Honest Serving Men

• What?
• How?
• Where?
• Who?
• When?
• Why?

54
Step 1 What?

• PLANNING YOUR RESEARCH
• What do I want to know?
• When developing your research question, keep in
  mind
• Who your research is for
• What decisions your research will inform
• What kind of information is needed to inform
  those
• decisions.
• Conduct a local information scan
• Take another look at your research question
  

55
Step 2 How? Where? Who?

• PLANNING YOUR RESEARCH
• How do I find out what I want to know?
• Where can I get the information I need?
• Who do I need to ask?
• Choose your methodology
• quantitative or numbers information
• qualitative in-depth explanatory information
• case studies
• site visits or observation
• participatory research

56
Step 3 When?

• PLANNING YOUR RESEARCH
• When do all the different parts of the research
  need to be done?
• List all your research work areas
• Map them against a timeline
• Develop a work plan

57
Step 4 Why?

• GETTING THE ANSWER
• Collect your data
• Keep returning to your research question
• Organize your research results to answer the
  question
• Keep in mind who you are doing the research for
• Focus on what research results do tell you
• Be creative, methodical and meticulous