1
This was the most flattering setup that we had,
so therefore it was banned. Synonymy of result
adverbials

• Marta Andersson, English Language Department
• Stockholm University

2
What motivates the use of seemingly synonymous
forms?
3

Corpus-driven study of lexical and functional
synonymy of five function words synonymous at a
broader level and exhibiting both meaning and
function differences at the narrower level so,
thus, therefore, hence, then written
section of the BNC
4
Syntactic/distributional constraints

• So it can occur only S2-initial
• In June 1946, however, a referendum indicated
  that more than half of the Italian people wanted
  a republic, so Umberto left Italy.
• He was able to expand his studies
  in the way that was ultimately to produce Capital
  , his main theoretical work.

so
therefore
The Commons, by its elected status, associates
the people with the government, and makes
a major contribution to legitimacy, a concept
essential for government by consent.
thus
?so
5
Meaning differences

• He thereupon immediately wrote to Kingsway Motors
  informing them of the situation and claiming the
  return of his purchase price. A week later Miss A
  completed her payments under her hire-purchase
  agreement and in doing so fed title down the line
  of purchasers. The process of feeding stopped at
  Kingsway Motors who thus became owners of the car.

6

• 21411 hits
• 1 THEREFORE BE 1395
• 2 THEREFORE HAVE 451
• 3 THEREFORE DO 128
• 4 THEREFORE NEED 114
• 5 THEREFORE CAN 92-41could
• 6THEREFORE SEEM 85
• 7 THEREFORE REQUIRE 62
• 8 THEREFORE MAKE 61
• 9 THEREFORE DECIDE 59
• 10 THEREFORE SHOULD 49

• 20141 hits
• THUS BE 521
• 2 THUS HAVE 228
• 3 THUS BECOME 215
• 4 THUS MAKE 165
• 5 THUS PROVIDE 171
• 6 THUS GIVE 105
• 7 THUS REDUCE 97
• 8 THUS CREATE 87
• 9 THUS ALLOW 84
• 10 THUS AVOID 56

7
Therefore for this reason/because of that

• Elena would regard anything called the Central
  London Polytechnic as an institution of the same
  rank, and therefore/?as a result worthy of her.
• Therefore/as a result try to arrive at the venue
  a day early.
•  

8
Hence

• By nightfall I have discovered that, before they
  thought of using money, the Finns used to use
  squirrels as currency, hence the splendid Finnish
  joke about trying to put a squirrel in a slot
  machine.

9
Away) from here, from this place to a distance,
ca. 1290. Hence might they see the full array of
either host.

• From this, as a source or origin, ca. 1597
• As an inference from this fact or circumstance
  from these premises or data for this reason
  therefore. ca. 1586
• From hence, therefore, we may conclude, that the
  size in these animals is not sufficient to make a
  distinction among them. (OED)

English hence, Polish stad
10
Distribution

• Sentence initial
• Hence 189
• Thus 212
• Therefore 45

• Sentence-medial - linking to the preceding
  sentence(s)/clause
• Hence 14 (236)
• Thus 140 (114)
• Therefore 240 (215)

11
The case of ifthen

• If you cannot find someone to conduct a mock
  interview then leave a tape-recorder on while you
  practice some of your more important answers.
• No cases of iftherefore/hence/thus, scarce
  examples of ifso.

12
Vaguness of then

• Bridget made a sympathetic comment and then went
  off to busy herself with another chore.
• I only had twenty four hours' notice and then I
  sat up all night learning a speech

13
Domain, speaker involvement and

• He passed the exam, so he worked hard.
• He passed the exam, therefore/hence/thus he
  worked hard.
• He passed the exam, ?then/so then/therefore he
  must have worked hard!

Internal causation
speaker involvement
14
Speakers conclusion

• After all, the newspapers are brimming with
  reports of horrendous attacks on women, so the
  risk must be considerable
• Yet we felt we should give this fellow a chance,
  so/therefore/?hence/thus my wife put it in a box
  and set it on top of the Aga.
• He is a big man with two Rottweiler dogs,
  so/?then you don't argue!

Volition as a result
Speech-act
15
Dimension 1- involved vs. informative
35
Face-to-face conversation
5
Prepared speeches
0
so
General fiction then
-15
Academic prose
hence, therefore, thus
Biber, Conrad, Reppen, 1998
16
Is the synonymy of semantically thin function
words rampant or does it contribute to nuanced
and stylistically advanced communication?

• Existing or anticipated high interest rates may
  in fact depress share prices and hence call
  prices thus permitting the investor to buy the
  option contracts at very favourable prices.
• They called the bank and the real estate agent,
  thus decreasing  the risk that somebody else will
  buy the house.