PS30084 / PS50098 - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

1 / 48
About This Presentation
Title:

PS30084 / PS50098

Description:

PS30084 / PS50098 Understanding Gender Relations Lecture 2: Psychology of sex differences research Dr Andrew Bengry-Howell, Prof Chris Griffin, Dr Helen Lucey – PowerPoint PPT presentation

Number of Views:133
Avg rating:3.0/5.0
Slides: 49
Provided by: Andrew1432
Category:

less

Transcript and Presenter's Notes

Title: PS30084 / PS50098


1
PS30084 / PS50098 Understanding Gender
Relations
Lecture 2 Psychology of sex differences research
Dr Andrew Bengry-Howell, Prof Chris Griffin, Dr
Helen Lucey
2
Structure of the unit
MainstreamSocialPsychology
FeministPerspectives
Critical SocialPsychology
3
Reading
  • Hare-Mustin, R. and Maracek, J. (1990). Making A
    Difference. Chapters 1, 2 and 4.
  • Stainton Rogers, W. Stainton Rogers, R. (2001).
    The Psychology of Gender and Sexuality. Chapter
    1.
  • Kitzinger, C. (ed.) (1994). Should Psychologists
    Study Sex Differences? Feminism and Psychology,
    4(4), 501-546. (in course pack)

4
Learning Outcomes
  • Aim To provide students with a critical
    understanding of the rationale underlying
    research on the psychology of sex differences.
  • Learning Outcomes
  • After attending this lecture and reading
    chapters 1 2 of Hare-Mustin Maracek
    (1990) and the article by Kitzinger (1994),
    you should be able to
  • 1. Understand the concepts of alpha-bias and
    beta-bias as they apply to research on the
    psychology of sex differences.
  • 2. Appreciate the main arguments made for and
    against research on the psychology of sex
    differences in recent debates amongst feminist
    and social psychology researchers.
  • 3. Understand how different approaches to the
    study of sex differences (by minimalists and
    maximalists) are associated with different
    theories about gender relations.
  • NB Chapter 1 of Stainton Rogers Stainton
    Rogers (2001) provides more detailed coverage of
    research that offers biological explanations of
    apparent differences between females and males.

5
Psychology of sex differences
  • A lot research from 1970s.
  • Two main strands
  • (a) Descriptive/empirical little analysis
  • Analytic studies biological determinism,
  • e.g. Hutt 1972.
  • Reviews of Sex difference research
  • MacCoby and Jacklin, 1964, 1974

    Fairweather, 1976

6
Biological paradigms
  • Biology Producing immutable sex differences
  • Biological sex (and gender) organised/constructed
    as a duality/dichotomy (opposites)
  • Biological sex Physiological difference
  • Anatomy, chromosomes, hormones

7
Chromosomal sex Genetic difference
X chromosome from male X chromosome from female
female foetus Y chromosome from male X
chromosome from female male foetus
8
Psychological sex differences
  • Psychology draws on ideas and theories from
    natural science - unlike other social sciences)
  • Mainstream psychology discovering and
    understanding biological bases of human behaviour
    and experience - processes that produce qualities
    and capacities that make us human/male or female

9
Neurological sex differences
  • Since early days of Psychology, psychologists
    have claimed that male and female brains are
    different
  • Originally women seen as intellectually inferior
    to men, having brains unsuited to scholarship,
    womens brains smaller than mens.

10
  • Much of the debate centred on whether or not
    women could be educated, especially in college
    and universities. One writer suggested that a
    woman of average brain could attain the same
    standards as a man with an average brain only at
    the cost of her health, of her emotions, of her
    morale. Another prophersized that women would
    grow bigger and heavier brains and their uteruses
    would shrink if the went to college. (Kimmel,
    2000)

11
Neurological sex differences
  • Simon Baron-Cohen
  • Essential differences between the human brain
  • Females hard wired - empathising
  • Males hard wired understanding/ building
    systems

12
Essential differences - Natural selection?
  • Empathising is the drive to identify another
    person's emotions and thoughts, and to respond to
    these with an appropriate emotion. The empathiser
    intuitively figures out how people are feeling,
    and how to treat people with care and
    sensitivity.

Systemising is the drive to analyse and explore a
system, to extract underlying rules that govern
the behaviour of a system and the drive to
construct systems.
13
Research on Sex Differences
14
Psychology and sex differences
  • Early psychology - preconception that men are
    more intelligent than women.
  • Early intelligence tests, however, modified to
    make sure men scored, on average, the same as
    women.
  • Otherwise, average scores for women proved higher
    than average scores for men.
  • Adjustment still going on in the 1950s and
    1960s in UK to ensure as many boys as girls
    passed the 11 test

15
Research evidence
  • Some small differences in way mens and womens
    brains are organised, but cannot account for
    differences in mens and womens performance
  • Social and cultural factors, social attitudes and
    expectations play a significant part

16
Psychology and sex differences
  • Search for measurable differences betweenwomen
    and men/explaining difference
  • Search for sex differences historically
    associated male theorists fascination with
    unravelling womens nature (Hollway, 1994)
  • Men were unmarked reference group - male
    behaviour norm or standard of comparison
  • Womens difference to men largely treated as
    inferiorities
  • Women constructed as lacking e.g. Freud women
    as lacking penis, rather than possessing a
    vagina

17
Feminist Psychology
  • 1970s - A lot of interest in SD research
  • Investigating extent to which men women are
    different and similar
  • Historically differences between men women
    attributed to essential biological factors -
    presented as universal, natural often morally
    correct
  • Concern - womens behaviour treated as a function
    of biology e.g. raging hormones, PMS, maternal
    instincts/men more rational/less determined by
    biology
  • Feminist psychology - challenging/testing
    assumptions of traditional research on
    male-female differences
  • Feminist critique of methods research
    design/methodology
  • Tendency to seek out/report on significant
    differences and ignore findings where no
    significant difference exists

18
Feminist Psychology
  • Two strands
  • Minimisers Research that explores the
    similarities between men and women - argue for
    sexual equality on the basis of similarity.
  • Maximisers Research that explores the way in
    which women differ from men reclaim and
    celebrate womens different ways of knowing.

19
  • Because discriminatory practices (such as the
    exclusion of women from higher education) have
    often been justified with reference to alleged
    differences between men and women, many
    feminist psychologists have felt it imperative to
    investigate objectively and scientifically the
    extent to which such differences actually
    existan alternative approach involves stepping
    back from the question of sex differences to
    ask why this question is constructed as
    important
  • (Kitzinger, 1994)

20
What are the facts/truths about sex differences?
  • Hare-Mustin (1990)
  • Most research into sex differences fundamentally
    flawed - real nature of male female-cannot be
    determined
  • Ideas linked to apparent sex differences shape
    our understandings, enable certain social
    realities to be constructed rather than
    reflecting actual out there social truths
  • Theories embody two distinct biases
  • One sees profound differences
  • Other sees considerable similarities

21
Alpha Beta bias
  • Alpha bias tendency to exaggerate differences
  • Beta bias tendency to minimise or ignore
    difference
  • Alpha-beta schema corresponds with scientific
    hypothesis testing in experimental psychology
  • Alpha bias/Type 1 errorReporting a significant
    difference when one does not exist/maximising
    difference
  • Beta bias/Type 2 errorOverlooking a significant
    difference when one does exist/ minimising
    difference

22
Should Psychologists study sex differences?
Kitzinger (1994)
  • Arguments used in favour of SD research
  • SD research can help to challenge traditional
    gender stereotypes
  • Research should never be censored
  • Pro-science SD research allows us to test
    theories and do better science
  • Feminist psychologists must be part of this
    research debate

23
Should Psychologists study sex differences?
Kitzinger (1994)
  • Arguments used against SD research
  • SD research doesnt always challenge traditional
    gender stereotypes
  • Anti-science science cant reveal truths about
    anything not value-free
  • SD research is asking the wrong questions, should
    look at
  • How gender / sex itself is constructed?

24
BREAK
25
PS30084 / PS50098 Understanding Gender
Relations
Lecture 3 Gender stereotyping and sex-role
socialisation theory
Dr Andrew Bengry-Howell, Prof Chris Griffin, Dr
Helen Lucey
26
Readings
Reading
  • Hare-Mustin and Maracek (1990). Making a
    difference. Chapter 3.
  • Stainton Rogers Stainton Rogers (2001). The
    psychology of gender and sexuality. Chapter 2
    (and part of chapter 3).
  • Carrigan, T., Connell, B. and Lee, J. (1985).
    The sex-role framework and the sociology of
    masculinity. Theory and Society, 14, 531-604. (in
    course pack)

27
Learning Outcomes
  • Aim
  • To present students with an account of the
    development of mainstream social psychological
    analyses of gender relations involving gender
    stereotyping and gender roles.
  • Learning Outcomes After attending this lecture
    and reading chapter 2 of Stainton Rogers
    Stainton Rogers (2001) and chapter 3 of
    Hare-Mustin Maracek (1990), you should be able
    to
  • Define the terms gender stereotyping and
    gender roles as developed in mainstream social
    psychological research during the 1970s.
  • Appreciate the difference between essentialist
    and social constructionist approaches to the
    study of masculinity, femininity and gender
    roles.
  • Understand the main elements of feminist
    critiques of sex-role socialisation theory as an
    explanation of relations between women and men
    and of the social organisation of gender.
  • NB Part of chapter 3 (pp. 73-80) of Stainton
    Rogers Stainton Rogers (2001) covers research
    that takes an interactive approach (ie. draws on
    both biological and social/cultural explanations
    for gender differences).

28
Nature vs Nurture
  • SD research - Gender as natural Biological
    determinism
  • Early Psychology preoccupation with conflict
    between nature nurture
  • 18C The enlightenment - Move away from nature
    civilising forces taming innate influences -
    external civilising customs internalised -
    beliefs, ideologies, mechanisms of control
  • Focus on social cultural influences on sex
    gender
  • Sexual identities mediated through culture -
    society culture open close possibilities for
    forms of being

29
Gender and social science
  • Anthropologists
  • Role of culture in internalisation gendered
    cultural practices rites of passage segregation
    of genders-different lives clearly demarcated
    gender roles
  • Sociologists
  • Focusing on internalisation of broader social
    processes - socio-economic forces (i.e. societies
    needs for gender roles - men breadwinners -
    devoting time to work women good wives
    mothers - devoting time to home family)
  • Psychologists
  • Internalisation - a process of socialisation -
    children gain knowledge of social rules governing
    behaviour from family agent of primary
    socialisation other social institutions
    (schools, church, etc.) agents of secondary
    socialisation

30
Contribution of Anthropology
  • 1920s/1930s - Biological determinism challenged
    gender differences not product of biology
  • American anthropology - concerned with
    enculturation socialisation mediated by culture
  • Ruth Benedict Margaret Mead (1935) Sex and
    Temperament in Three Primitive Societies
  • Conducted research in Samoa New Guinea Gender
    constituted/operated differently to mainstream US
    culture

31
Ruth Benedict Margaret Mead (1935)
New Guinea tribes Arapesh Men women both
displayed characteristics that Western culture
would regard as feminine - gentle, responsive,
and cooperative.
Mundugumor - Men women displayed
characteristics that Western culture would regard
as Masculine/macho - violent and aggressive,
seeking power and position Tchambuli - reverse
of Western gender roles - women were sexually
dominant initiated sexual relations/men were
sexually submissive
32
Meads thesis
Masculinity Femininity not products of Biology,
but culture/ not fixed, but relative Role of
Culture Network of customs, rituals rules that
provide social coherence to a group to belong
to group, members must adhere to rules and engage
in rituals customs Within cultures social
expectations of how men women should behave
ideas about what it means to be Male or Female -
This can vary from culture to culture Cultures
provide powerful pressure to conform
33
Contribution of Sociology
  • Goffman (1959)
  • Interest in gender roles dramaturgical -
    people perform roles
  • Male female roles - scripts that people learn
    and follow
  • Socially encouraged patterns of behaviour -
    people are expected to perform in specific
    situations
  • Gender roles - ways in which women pass as
    women men pass as men (culturally convincing)

34
Sex role theory (Talcott Parsons)
  • Rejected biological determinism - gender
    differentiation a product of structural
    functionalism
  • Social organisation emerges through social
    evolution social practices/customs evolve that
    benefit cohesion/social function of particular
    groups communities
  • Drew on psychoanalytic theories - gender acquired
    through internalisation - Male and females become
    competent in/committed to gender appropriate role
  • Male female roles perform complementary
    functions/ operate together make society work
  • Womens role Expressive Mens role Practical

35
Contribution of Social Psychology
  • Research
  • How we learn gender appropriate behaviour
  • How children acquire understanding of gender
    behave in gender appropriate ways
  • Social Learning Theory
  • Cognitive Developmental Theory
  • Gender Schema Theory

36
Social Learning Theory Bandura (1963)
  • Developed from behaviourist orientation - Gender
    appropriate behaviour reinforced/ inappropriate
    behaviour undermined/punished
  • Bandura Walters observed traditional cultures -
    tended to stay with mothers boys with fathers/
    each observed and imitated activities performed
    by their parents
  • Observational learning - watching, imitating
    behaviour of another - encoding of
    experience/children model behaviour of people
    around them
  • Social roles attached to gender not necessarily
    ordained by biological differences

37
Social Learning Theory Bandura (1963)
  • Themes in arguments for acquisition of gender
    roles through social learning
  • Imitation
  • Parents are the people most likely to modelled by
    children/esp. young children
  • Children more frequently exposed to models of
    their own gender than of other gender
  • Children tend to imitate role models they see as
    similar to themselves/same-gender models imitated
    more than opposite-gender ones

38
Problem?
  • Young children in most societies spend more time
    with women, so what about boys?
  • Among very young children (boys girls) primary
    model is likely to be their mother
  • Two explanations

(1) At about 3 or 4 years boys reach a
wired-in stage causing them to shift
identification to father other men (Biosocial
explanation) (2) Other social influences steer
boys towards a shift in their identification
39
Cognitive Development Theories
  • Piaget childrens cognitive development a
    sequence of transformations between different
    ways-of-knowing-in-the-world
  • Kohlberg applied Piagets theory to childrens
    acquisition of cognitive competencies in relation
    to gender
  • Kohlbergs theory 3 main stages
  • Gender labelling Accurate attribution of terms
    such as (around 3) boy girl
  • Gender knowledge Knowledge about the
    characteristics (4-5) of female male gender
  • Gender constancy Recognising that gender
    is(5) unchanging

40
Criticisms Cognitive Development Theories
  • Sandra Bem
  • Challenges CDTs assumption that sex is just
    another category
  • Doesnt explain why sex has primacy over other
    categories of the self (ethnicity, religion, eye
    colour etc.)
  • Doesnt explain why children chose gender as a
    primary domain around which to organise
    information about the self

41
Bem (1985) Gender Schema Theory
  • Gender schema theory places emphasis on social
    cultural influences
  • Schema-conceptual framework through which people
    make sense of the world
  • Schemas - guide information processing - central
    to how people make sense of gender/including
    their own
  • Sex typing product of gender-schematic
    processing child actively encoding/organising
    information according to cultures definition of
    maleness femaleness
  • Sex typing mediated by childs own cognitive
    processing, but gender schematic processing
    derived from sex-differentiated practices of the
    social community

42
Bem (1985) Gender Schema Theory
  • Explicit agenda - how to raise gender aschematic
    children in a gender schematic world
  • Androgyny
  • Gender schemas - deeply embedded assumptions that
    we hold about maleness femaleness in our
    society -used to evaluate ourselves others
  • Gender schemata can lead to gender stereotyping

43
Gender stereotyping
  • Stereotype
  • Complex set of shared images conceptions which
    denote the general behaviour of a given group in
    society (Hutter and Williams, 1981).
  • Gender stereotypes
  • Beliefs attitudes about masculinity
    femininity
  • Association of particular pattern of behaviour
    with one or other gender, overlooking of
    individual variations exceptions /belief that a
    certain behaviour is associated with one gender
    and not the other
  • Gender stereotypes establish the social
    categories for gender

44
Gender Stereotypes Real Woman
Welter (1978) - Idealisation of femininity
(historically culturally constructed) 5
central themes
(1) Is warm caring has moral
superiority/ care for others/esp. weak
vulnerable (2) Does not sleep around
purity-contrasted with promiscuity - labelling
slag etc. (3) Treats body as a temple clean
wholesome no unwanted body hair or odours,
disciplined body-regulated by diet
exercise (4) Gets her way by coy feminine
wiles rather than blunt aggressiveness gentle
persuasion fluttering eyelashes etc. (5)
Loves children/is good home maker Note more
censure for woman who leaves children family
home than man
45
Gender stereotypes Real man
  • Robert Brannon (1976) Idealisation of masculinity
    (historically culturally constructed)

4 central themes (1) No girlie stuff avoid all
female qualities (2) Be a winner competitive,
gain, status, success (3) Be a tough guy
self-reliant, strong, confident (4) Give em
hell Never let anyone get the better of you,
use aggression or even violence if you need to
46
Pervasiveness of Gender stereotypes
  • Men are from Mars, Women are from VenusJohn
    Gray (1993)
  • Why men dont listen women cant read maps
    Allan Barbara Pease (2001)
  • Traditional work carried out by psychologists on
    sex differences based on gender stereotypes
  • Particularly in areas such as personality and
    social psychology

47
Masculinity/Femininity
  • Masculinity/Femininity social constructs,
    central to sex roles/stereotypes, which are
    transmitted in sex-role socialisation
  • Sex-role Socialization The transmission of a
    given culture culture a whole way of life.
  • Assumed to be quantifiable/measurable, e.g.
    Rosenkrantz and Broverman studies
  • Focus on difference.- Difficult to understand
    contradictions within and between stereotypes
  • Women and men constructed as uniform categories.
  • What happens when socialization fails?
  • Individual seen as relatively passive -
    reflection of problem with socialization
  • Focus on psychological level what about
    economic, cultural, social contexts?
  • No analysis of POWER differentials.

48
  • The end

Boy
Girl
Write a Comment
User Comments (0)
About PowerShow.com