Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 1. Number of individuals
• 2. Biomass
• 3. Energy
• B. Trophic structure and energy flow in
  ecosystems (FIG. 2)
• 1. Grazer system
• 2. Decomposer system

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 1. Number of individuals. There are usually
  many more individuals at lower trophic
  levels than at upper levels.
• 2. Biomass
• 3. Energy

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 1. Number of individuals. There are usually
  many more individuals at lower trophic
  levels than at upper levels. Occasionally
  there are more herbivores than plants,
  creating an inverted pyramid.
• 2. Biomass
• 3. Energy

5
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 1. Number of individuals. There are usually
  many more individuals at lower trophic
  levels than at upper levels. Occasionally
  there are more herbivores than plants,
  creating an inverted pyramid. Examples bark
  beetles on trees or aphids on any large
  plants.
• 2. Biomass
• 3. Energy

6
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 1. Number of individuals. There are usually
  many more individuals at lower trophic
  levels than at upper levels. Occasionally
  there are more herbivores than plants,
  creating an inverted pyramid. Examples bark
  beetles on trees or aphids on any large
  plants.
• 2. Biomass. Generally more biomass at lower
  levels.
• 3. Energy

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 1. Number of individuals. There are usually
  many more individuals at lower trophic
  levels than at upper levels. Occasionally
  there are more herbivores than plants,
  creating an inverted pyramid. Examples bark
  beetles on trees or aphids on any large
  plants.
• 2. Biomass. Generally more biomass at lower
  levels. However, can occasionally be
  inverted if producers are small organisms
  with short life spans rapid turnover and
  consumers are large organisms.
• 3. Energy

9
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 1. Number of individuals. There are usually
  many more individuals at lower trophic
  levels than at upper levels. Occasionally
  there are more herbivores than plants,
  creating an inverted pyramid. Examples bark
  beetles on trees or aphids on any large
  plants.
• 2. Biomass. Generally more biomass at lower
  levels. However, can occasionally be
  inverted if producers are small organisms
  with short life spans rapid turnover and
  consumers are large organisms. Example blue
  whales, with 20-year generations feeding on
  phytoplankton (1-week generations). In this
  case, there could be more biomass in the
  whales at any given time than in the
  phytoplankton.
• 3. Energy

10
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 2. Biomass. Generally more biomass at lower
  levels. However, can occasionally be
  inverted if producers are small organisms
  with short life spans rapid turnover and
  consumers are large organisms. Example blue
  whales, with 20-year generations feeding on
  phytoplankton (1-week generations). In this
  case, there could be more biomass in the
  whales at any given time than in the
  phytoplankton.
• 3. Energy. All energy for higher trophic
  levels must come from below and some energy
  is lost at each level.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 2. Biomass. Generally more biomass at lower
  levels. However, can occasionally be
  inverted if producers are small organisms
  with short life spans rapid turnover and
  consumers are large organisms. Example blue
  whales, with 20-year generations feeding on
  phytoplankton (1-week generations). In this
  case, there could be more biomass in the
  whales at any given time than in the
  phytoplankton.
• 3. Energy. All energy for higher trophic
  levels must come from below and some energy
  is lost at each level. Thus, energy
  pyramids can never be inverted.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 3. Energy. All energy for higher trophic
  levels must come from below and some energy
  is lost at each level. Thus, energy
  pyramids can never be inverted.
• B. Trophic structure and energy flow in
  ecosystems (FIG. 2)
• 1. Grazer system
• 2. Decomposer system

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 3. Energy. All energy for higher trophic
  levels must come from below and some energy
  is lost at each level. Thus, energy
  pyramids can never be inverted.
• B. Trophic structure and energy flow in
  ecosystems (FIG. 2)
• 1. Grazer system. Depends on a foundation of
  autotrophic basal species -- plants, algae,
  phytoplankton, and (in a few cases) bacteria
  for energy.
• 2. Decomposer system

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• A. Ecological pyramids (FIG. 1)
• 3. Energy. All energy for higher trophic
  levels must come from below and some energy
  is lost at each level. Thus, energy
  pyramids can never be inverted.
• B. Trophic structure and energy flow in
  ecosystems (FIG. 2)
• 1. Grazer system. Depends on a foundation of
  autotrophic basal species -- plants, algae,
  phytoplankton, and (in a few cases) bacteria
  for energy. Some energy is lost at each
  level because (1) not all is consumed (2) some
  consumed energy is lost as feces, and (3)
  some energy not lost as feces is used in
  respiration.
• 2. Decomposer system

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• B. Trophic structure and energy flow in
  ecosystems (FIG. 2)
• 1. Grazer system. Depends on a foundation of
  autotrophic basal species -- plants, algae,
  phytoplankton, and (in a few cases) bacteria
  for energy. Some energy is lost at each
  level because (1) not all is consumed (2) some
  consumed energy is lost as feces, and (3)
  some energy not lost as feces is used in
  respiration. Energy provided by plants to
  the second trophic level (and above) is called
  net primary production (NPP).
• 2. Decomposer system

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• B. Trophic structure and energy flow in
  ecosystems (FIG. 2)
• 1. Grazer system. Depends on a foundation of
  autotrophic basal species -- plants, algae,
  phytoplankton, and (in a few cases) bacteria
  for energy. Some energy is lost at each
  level because (1) not all is consumed (2) some
  consumed energy is lost as feces, and (3)
  some energy not lost as feces is used in
  respiration. Energy provided by plants to
  the second trophic level (and above) is called
  net primary production (NPP).
• 2. Decomposer system.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• B. Trophic structure and energy flow in
  ecosystems (FIG. 2)
• 1. Grazer system. Depends on a foundation of
  autotrophic basal species -- plants, algae,
  phytoplankton, and (in a few cases) bacteria
  for energy. Some energy is lost at each
  level because (1) not all is consumed (2) some
  consumed energy is lost as feces, and (3)
  some energy not lost as feces is used in
  respiration. Energy provided by plants to
  the second trophic level (and above) is called
  net primary production (NPP).
• 2. Decomposer system. Depends on dead
  organic material in the form of dead bodies
  and feces from the grazer system or from
  decomposing organisms.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• B. Trophic structure and energy flow in
  ecosystems (FIG. 2)
• 1. Grazer system. Depends on a foundation of
  autotrophic basal species -- plants, algae,
  phytoplankton, and (in a few cases) bacteria
  for energy. Some energy is lost at each
  level because (1) not all is consumed (2) some
  consumed energy is lost as feces, and (3)
  some energy not lost as feces is used in
  respiration. Energy provided by plants to
  the second trophic level (and above) is called
  net primary production (NPP).
• 2. Decomposer system. Depends on dead
  organic material in the form of dead bodies
  and feces from the grazer system or from
  decomposing organisms.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• I. Introduction
• B. Trophic structure and energy flow in
  ecosystems (FIG. 2)
• 2. Decomposer system. Depends on dead
  organic material in the form of dead bodies
  and feces from the grazer system or from
  decomposing organisms. The decomposer system is
  critically important for nutrient cycling,
  which makes inorganic nutrients available
  to plants or other autotrophs in the grazer
  system.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross primary production (GPP)
• 2. Autotrophic respiration (RA)
• 3. Net primary production (NPP)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross primary production (GPP). The
  amount of energy (Joules/m2/day) or biomass
  (kg/ha/yr) produced by autotrophs.
• 2. Autotrophic respiration (RA)
• 3. Net primary production (NPP)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross primary production (GPP). The
  amount of energy (Joules/m2/day) or biomass
  (kg/ha/yr) produced by autotrophs. The
  total amount of carbohydrates produced by
  photosynthesis (or chemosynthesis).
• 2. Autotrophic respiration (RA)
• 3. Net primary production (NPP)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross primary production (GPP). The
  amount of energy (Joules/m2/day) or biomass
  (kg/ha/yr) produced by autotrophs. The
  total amount of carbohydrates produced by
  photosynthesis (or chemosynthesis).
• 2. Autotrophic respiration (RA). Energy lost
  by respiration of autotrophs, including dark
  respiration and photorespiration.
• 3. Net primary production (NPP)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross primary production (GPP). The
  amount of energy (Joules/m2/day) or biomass
  (kg/ha/yr) produced by autotrophs. The
  total amount of carbohydrates produced by
  photosynthesis (or chemosynthesis).
• 2. Autotrophic respiration (RA). Energy lost
  by respiration of autotrophs, including dark
  respiration and photorespiration.
• 3. Net primary production (NPP). NPP GPP -
  RA. This is the amount of new plant
  biomass available for heterotrophs to eat.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross primary production (GPP). The
  amount of energy (Joules/m2/day) or biomass
  (kg/ha/yr) produced by autotrophs. The
  total amount of carbohydrates produced by
  photosynthesis (or chemosynthesis).
• 2. Autotrophic respiration (RA). Energy lost
  by respiration of autotrophs, including dark
  respiration and photorespiration.
• 3. Net primary production (NPP). NPP GPP -
  RA. This is the amount of new plant
  biomass available for heterotrophs to eat.
• B. What determines net primary production?
• 1. Light, temperature, and moisture (FIGS.
  3,4,5)
• 2. Nutrients (FIGS. 5,6)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• B. What determines net primary production?
• 1. Light, temperature, and moisture (FIGS.
  3,4,5)
• 2. Nutrients (FIGS. 5,6)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• B. What determines net primary production?
• 1. Light, temperature, and moisture (FIGS.
  3,4,5)
• Actual evapotranspiration (AET) is a
  function of light levels, average
  temperature, and amount of water available so AET
  is a good predictor of NPP.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• B. What determines net primary production?
• 1. Light, temperature, and moisture (FIGS.
  3,4,5)
• Actual evapotranspiration (AET) is a
  function of light levels, average
  temperature, and amount of water available so AET
  is a good predictor of NPP. In some
  ecosystems, light or temperature may limit
  NPP, and in other ecosystems, water or even
  nutrients may be limiting.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• B. What determines net primary production?
• 1. Light, temperature, and moisture (FIGS.
  3,4,5)
• Actual evapotranspiration (AET) is a
  function of light levels, average
  temperature, and amount of water available so AET
  is a good predictor of NPP. In some
  ecosystems, light or temperature may limit
  NPP, and in other ecosystems, water or even
  nutrients may be limiting. The limiting factor
  may also change by season (FIG. 4).

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• B. What determines net primary production?
• 1. Light, temperature, and moisture (FIGS.
  3,4,5)
• Actual evapotranspiration (AET) is a
  function of light levels, average
  temperature, and amount of water available so AET
  is a good predictor of NPP. In some
  ecosystems, light or temperature may limit
  NPP, and in other ecosystems, water or even
  nutrients may be limiting. The limiting factor
  may also change by season (FIG. 4). For
  example, in a Kansas prairie, cold
  temperatures limit NPP in winter but drought
  limits NPP in summer, and herbivory or
  disease or nutrient deficiency in the soil
  might also limit NPP.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• B. What determines net primary production?
• 2. Nutrients (FIGS. 5,6). Deep in the
  oceans, NPP by phytoplankton is limited
  primarily by light and temperature. In
  the euphotic zone (where light levels are at
  least 1 of full sunlight), NPP is usually
  limited by N or by P.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• B. What determines net primary production?
• 2. Nutrients (FIGS. 5,6). Deep in the
  oceans, NPP by phytoplankton is limited
  primarily by light and temperature. In
  the euphotic zone (where light levels are at
  least 1 of full sunlight), NPP is usually
  limited by N or by P. As these nutrients
  become more available, NPP is then limited by
  other nutrients. In the Sargasso Sea, Fe
  was most limiting but when Fe was plentiful
  N became most limiting, and when N was
  plentiful P became limiting.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• B. What determines net primary production?
• 2. Nutrients (FIGS. 5,6). Deep in the
  oceans, NPP by phytoplankton is limited
  primarily by light and temperature. In
  the euphotic zone (where light levels are at
  least 1 of full sunlight), NPP is usually
  limited by N or by P. As these nutrients
  become more available, NPP is then limited by
  other nutrients. In the Sargasso Sea, Fe
  was most limiting but when Fe was plentiful
  N became most limiting, and when N was
  plentiful P became limiting.
• C. Temporal patterns of NPP (FIG. 4)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• C. Temporal patterns of NPP (FIG. 4). GPP is
  generally greatest in summer, but NPP can be
  greatest in spring or fall when respiration
  rates are lower.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• C. Temporal patterns of NPP (FIG. 4). GPP is
  generally greatest in summer, but NPP can be
  greatest in spring or fall when respiration
  rates are lower.
• D. Global patterns of NPP (FIG. 7)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• C. Temporal patterns of NPP (FIG. 4). GPP is
  generally greatest in summer, but NPP can be
  greatest in spring or fall when respiration
  rates are lower.
• D. Global patterns of NPP (FIG. 7).
  NPP of
  terrestrial systems is generally limited by
  climate, but NPP in aquatic systems is often
  limited by nutrients.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• C. Temporal patterns of NPP (FIG. 4). GPP is
  generally greatest in summer, but NPP can be
  greatest in spring or fall when respiration
  rates are lower.
• D. Global patterns of NPP (FIG. 7).
  NPP of
  terrestrial systems is generally limited by
  climate, but NPP in aquatic systems is often
  limited by nutrients. Maximum terrestrial NPP
  is 110 to 120 metric tons of dry weight per ha
  per year.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• C. Temporal patterns of NPP (FIG. 4). GPP is
  generally greatest in summer, but NPP can be
  greatest in spring or fall when respiration
  rates are lower.
• D. Global patterns of NPP (FIG. 7).
  NPP of
  terrestrial systems is generally limited by
  climate, but NPP in aquatic systems is often
  limited by nutrients. Maximum terrestrial NPP
  is 110 to 120 metric tons of dry weight per ha
  per year. Typical marine NPP rates are 50 to 60
  metric tons of dry weight per ha per year, but
  shallow areas can have much higher NPP.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• C. Temporal patterns of NPP (FIG. 4). GPP is
  generally greatest in summer, but NPP can be
  greatest in spring or fall when respiration
  rates are lower.
• D. Global patterns of NPP (FIG. 7).
  NPP of
  terrestrial systems is generally limited by
  climate, but NPP in aquatic systems is often
  limited by nutrients. Maximum terrestrial NPP
  is 110 to 120 metric tons of dry weight per ha
  per year. Typical marine NPP rates are 50 to 60
  metric tons of dry weight per ha per year, but
  shallow areas can have much higher NPP. Highest
  NPP on per area basis are algal beds, reefs,
  estuaries, swamps, marshes, cultivated lands,
  and forests.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• II. Primary Production
• C. Temporal patterns of NPP (FIG. 4). GPP is
  generally greatest in summer, but NPP can be
  greatest in spring or fall when respiration
  rates are lower.
• D. Global patterns of NPP (FIG. 7).
  NPP of
  terrestrial systems is generally limited by
  climate, but NPP in aquatic systems is often
  limited by nutrients. Maximum terrestrial NPP
  is 110 to 120 metric tons of dry weight per ha
  per year. Typical marine NPP rates are 50 to 60
  metric tons of dry weight per ha per year, but
  shallow areas can have much higher NPP. Highest
  NPP on per area basis are algal beds, reefs,
  estuaries, swamps, marshes, cultivated lands,
  and forests. NPP is generally greatest near the
  equator and lowest near the poles and in
  deserts.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• A. Definitions
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies
• C. How is secondary production estimated?
• D. Ecosystem carbon exchange

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross secondary production (GSP)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross secondary production (GSP). The
  total energy intake by heterotrophs.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross secondary production (GSP). The
  total energy intake by heterotrophs.
• 2. Heterotrophic respiration (RH)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross secondary production (GSP). The
  total energy intake by heterotrophs.
• 2. Heterotrophic respiration (RH) . The
  energy lost through respiration in
  heterotrophs.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross secondary production (GSP). The
  total energy intake by heterotrophs.
• 2. Heterotrophic respiration (RH). The
  energy lost through respiration in
  heterotrophs.
• 3. Net secondary production (NSP)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross secondary production (GSP). The
  total energy intake by heterotrophs.
• 2. Heterotrophic respiration (RH) . The
  energy lost through respiration in
  heterotrophs.
• 3. Net secondary production (NSP). NSP GSP
  - RH

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross secondary production (GSP). The
  total energy intake by heterotrophs.
• 2. Heterotrophic respiration (RH) . The
  energy lost through respiration in
  heterotrophs.
• 3. Net secondary production (NSP). NSP GSP
  - RH NSP is the energy converted into
  heterotroph biomass.

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• A. Definitions
• 1. Gross secondary production (GSP). The
  total energy intake by heterotrophs.
• 2. Heterotrophic respiration (RH) . The
  energy lost through respiration in
  heterotrophs.
• 3. Net secondary production (NSP). NSP GSP
  - RH NSP is the energy converted into
  heterotroph biomass.
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• 2. Typical energy transfer efficiencies

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• a. Consumption efficiency (FIG. 8)
• b. Assimilation efficiency
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• a. Consumption efficiency (FIG. 8).
  Percent of production at one trophic
  level thats consumed by the next trophic level.
• b. Assimilation efficiency
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• a. Consumption efficiency (FIG. 8).
  Percent of production at one trophic
  level thats consumed by the next trophic level.
  The remainder of production dies.
• b. Assimilation efficiency
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• a. Consumption efficiency (FIG. 8).
  Percent of production at one trophic
  level thats consumed by the next trophic level.
  The remainder of production dies. CE
  ranges from about 5 in forests to 50
  in phytoplankton communities.
• b. Assimilation efficiency
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• a. Consumption efficiency (FIG. 8).
  Percent of production at one trophic
  level thats consumed by the next trophic level.
  The remainder of production dies. CE
  ranges from about 5 in forests to 50
  in phytoplankton communities.
• b. Assimilation efficiency
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• a. Consumption efficiency (FIG. 8).
  Percent of production at one trophic
  level thats consumed by the next trophic level.
  The remainder of production dies. CE
  ranges from about 5 in forests to 50
  in phytoplankton communities.
• b. Assimilation efficiency. Percent of
  energy consumed by all organisms at
  one trophic level that is assimilated and
  used for growth, maintenance, reproduction, or
  defense. c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• a. Consumption efficiency (FIG. 8).
  Percent of production at one trophic
  level thats consumed by the next trophic level.
  The remainder of production dies. CE
  ranges from about 5 in forests to 50
  in phytoplankton communities.
• b. Assimilation efficiency. Percent of
  energy consumed by all organisms at
  one trophic level that is assimilated and
  used for growth, maintenance, reproduction, or
  defense. The remainder is passed on
  as feces.
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• a. Consumption efficiency (FIG. 8).
  Percent of production at one trophic
  level thats consumed by the next trophic level.
  The remainder of production dies. CE
  ranges from about 5 in forests to 50
  in phytoplankton communities.
• b. Assimilation efficiency. Percent of
  energy consumed by all organisms at
  one trophic level that is assimilated and
  used for growth, maintenance, reproduction, or
  defense. The remainder is passed on
  as feces. AE ranges from about 20 to
  50 in herbivores up to 80 in carnivores.
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9)

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Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• a. Consumption efficiency (FIG. 8).
  Percent of production at one trophic
  level thats consumed by the next trophic level.
  The remainder of production dies. CE
  ranges from about 5 in forests to 50
  in phytoplankton communities.
• b. Assimilation efficiency. Percent of
  energy consumed by all organisms at
  one trophic level that is assimilated and
  used for growth, maintenance, reproduction, or
  defense. The remainder is passed on
  as feces. AE ranges from about 20 to
  50 in herbivores up to 80 in carnivores.
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9)

69
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• b. Assimilation efficiency. Percent of
  energy consumed by all organisms at
  one trophic level that is assimilated and
  used for growth, maintenance, reproduction, or
  defense. The remainder is passed on
  as feces. AE ranges from about 20 to
  50 in herbivores up to 80 in carnivores.
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9).
  Percent of assimilated energy
  incorporated into new biomass.

70
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• b. Assimilation efficiency. Percent of
  energy consumed by all organisms at
  one trophic level that is assimilated and
  used for growth, maintenance, reproduction, or
  defense. The remainder is passed on
  as feces. AE ranges from about 20 to
  50 in herbivores up to 80 in carnivores.
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9).
  Percent of assimilated energy
  incorporated into new biomass. The remainder is
  lost as respiratory heat.

71
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• b. Assimilation efficiency. Percent of
  energy consumed by all organisms at
  one trophic level that is assimilated and
  used for growth, maintenance, reproduction, or
  defense. The remainder is passed on
  as feces. AE ranges from about 20 to
  50 in herbivores up to 80 in carnivores.
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9).
  Percent of assimilated energy
  incorporated into new biomass. The remainder is
  lost as respiratory heat. PE ranges
  from 1 to 3 in endotherms to 10 in
  ectotherms and up to 30 to 40 in
  invertebrates.

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73
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9).
  Percent of assimilated energy
  incorporated into new biomass. The remainder is
  lost as respiratory heat. PE ranges
  from 1 to 3 in endotherms to 10 in
  ectotherms and up to 30 to 40 in
  invertebrates.
• 2. Typical transfer efficiencies (FIG. 10)
• TE CE x AE x PE.

74
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 1. Components of energy transfer efficiencies
• c. Production efficiency (FIG. 9).
  Percent of assimilated energy
  incorporated into new biomass. The remainder is
  lost as respiratory heat. PE ranges
  from 1 to 3 in endotherms to 10 in
  ectotherms and up to 30 to 40 in
  invertebrates.
• 2. Typical transfer efficiencies (FIG. 10)
• TE CE x AE x PE. The overall average
  in terrestrial and marine ecosystems is
  about 10 but varies from less than 1 to
  more than 20.

75
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76
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 2. Typical transfer efficiencies (FIG. 10)
• TE CE x AE x PE. The overall average
  in terrestrial and marine ecosystems is
  about 10 but varies from less than 1 to
  more than 20.
• C. How is secondary production estimated (FIGS.
  11,12)

77
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 2. Typical transfer efficiencies (FIG. 10)
• TE CE x AE x PE. The overall average
  in terrestrial and marine ecosystems is
  about 10 but varies from less than 1 to
  more than 20.
• C. How is secondary production estimated (FIGS.
  11,12)
• Its a difficult process! Generally start
  with data from a life table (FIG. 11).

78
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79
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 2. Typical transfer efficiencies (FIG. 10)
• TE CE x AE x PE. The overall average
  in terrestrial and marine ecosystems is
  about 10 but varies from less than 1 to
  more than 20.
• C. How is secondary production estimated (FIGS.
  11,12)
• Its a difficult process! Generally start
  with data from a life table (FIG. 11). Must
  also estimate food consumption, feces
  production, growth rates and weight, metabolic
  rates, and energy equivalents for all these
  processes.

80
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• B. Energy transfer efficiencies (ecological
  efficiencies, Lindemans efficiencies)
• 2. Typical transfer efficiencies (FIG. 10)
• TE CE x AE x PE. The overall average
  in terrestrial and marine ecosystems is
  about 10 but varies from less than 1 to
  more than 20.
• C. How is secondary production estimated (FIGS.
  11,12)
• Its a difficult process! Generally start
  with data from a life table (FIG. 11). Must
  also estimate food consumption, feces
  production, growth rates and weight, metabolic
  rates, and energy equivalents for all these
  processes. See FIG. 12 for an example of
  secondary production in elephants.

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82
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• C. How is secondary production estimated (FIGS.
  11,12)
• Its a difficult process! Generally start
  with data from a life table (FIG. 11). Must
  also estimate food consumption, feces
  production, growth rates and weight, metabolic
  rates, and energy equivalents for all these
  processes. See FIG. 12 for an example of
  secondary production in elephants.
• D. Ecosystem carbon exchange (FIG. 13)

83
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• C. How is secondary production estimated (FIGS.
  11,12)
• Its a difficult process! Generally start
  with data from a life table (FIG. 11). Must
  also estimate food consumption, feces
  production, growth rates and weight, metabolic
  rates, and energy equivalents for all these
  processes. See FIG. 12 for an example of
  secondary production in elephants.
• D. Ecosystem carbon exchange (FIG. 13)
• Net ecosystem production (NEP) is equal to GPP
  minus respiration of all organisms in the
  ecosystem (RE). NEP is extremely important for
  global change issues.

84
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• C. How is secondary production estimated (FIGS.
  11,12)
• Its a difficult process! Generally start
  with data from a life table (FIG. 11). Must
  also estimate food consumption, feces
  production, growth rates and weight, metabolic
  rates, and energy equivalents for all these
  processes. See FIG. 12 for an example of
  secondary production in elephants.
• D. Ecosystem carbon exchange (FIG. 13)
• Net ecosystem production (NEP) is equal to GPP
  minus respiration of all organisms in the
  ecosystem (RE). NEP is extremely important for
  global change issues. Most ecosystems are
  carbon sinks because plants take so much CO2 out
  of the atmosphere to use in photosynthesis.

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86
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• III. Secondary Production
• D. Ecosystem carbon exchange (FIG. 13)
• Net ecosystem production (NEP) is equal to GPP
  minus respiration of all organisms in the
  ecosystem (RE). NEP is extremely important for
  global change issues. Most ecosystems are
  carbon sinks because plants take so much CO2 out
  of the atmosphere to use in photosynthesis.
  However, human disturbance such as clearing and
  burning of forests can make these ecosystems a
  source of carbon rather than a sink. Then they
  are are adding more CO2 into the atmosphere and
  increasing the greenhouse effect.

87
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• A. What is biogeochemistry? (FIG. 14)
• B. The hydrologic cycle (FIG. 15)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• D. The phosphorus cycle (FIG. 18)
• E. The carbon cycle (FIG. 19)

88
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• A. What is biogeochemistry? (FIG. 14)
• The study of chemical or physical processes
  within pools or compartments such as the
  atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere and
  fluxes or movement between compartments.
• B. The hydrologic cycle (FIG. 15)

89
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90
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• A. What is biogeochemistry? (FIG. 14)
• The study of chemical or physical processes
  within pools or compartments such as the
  atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere and
  fluxes or movement between compartments.
• B. The hydrologic cycle (FIG. 15)

91
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• A. What is biogeochemistry? (FIG. 14)
• The study of chemical or physical processes
  within pools or compartments such as the
  atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere and
  fluxes or movement between compartments.
• B. The hydrologic cycle (FIG. 15). The
  hydrologic cycle consists of pools and fluxes of
  water in all forms.

92
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93
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• A. What is biogeochemistry? (FIG. 14)
• The study of chemical or physical processes
  within pools or compartments such as the
  atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere and
  fluxes or movement between compartments.
• B. The hydrologic cycle (FIG. 15). The
  hydrologic cycle consists of pools and fluxes of
  water in all forms. Notice that water vapor
  transport from oceans to land is equal to stream
  flow back into the oceans.

94
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95
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• A. What is biogeochemistry? (FIG. 14)
• The study of chemical or physical processes
  within pools or compartments such as the
  atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere and
  fluxes or movement between compartments.
• B. The hydrologic cycle (FIG. 15). The
  hydrologic cycle consists of pools and fluxes of
  water in all forms. Notice that water vapor
  transport from oceans to land is equal to stream
  flow back into the oceans. Precipitation also
  equals evaporation and transpiration plus
  streamflow. In other words, the cycle is stable
  on a global scale.

96
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97
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• A. What is biogeochemistry? (FIG. 14)
• The study of chemical or physical processes
  within pools or compartments such as the
  atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere and
  fluxes or movement between compartments.
• B. The hydrologic cycle (FIG. 15). The
  hydrologic cycle consists of pools and fluxes of
  water in all forms. Notice that water vapor
  transport from oceans to land is equal to stream
  flow back into the oceans. Precipitation also
  equals evaporation and transpiration plus
  streamflow. In other words, the cycle is stable
  on a global scale. The main pool of water is
  the oceans.

98
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99
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• B. The hydrologic cycle (FIG. 15). The
  hydrologic cycle consists of pools and fluxes of
  water in all forms. Notice that water vapor
  transport from oceans to land is equal to stream
  flow back into the oceans. Precipitation also
  equals evaporation and transpiration plus
  streamflow. In other words, the cycle is stable
  on a global scale. The main pool of water is
  the oceans.
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 1. Inputs
• 2. Losses
• 3. Internal cycling (recycling)
• 4. Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle (FIG.
  17)

100
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 1. Inputs
• The largest pool of N is in the
  atmosphere.

101
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 1. Inputs
• The largest pool of N is in the
  atmosphere. Nitrogen enters ecosystems in
  precipitation and dry deposition and by
  lightning, biological fixation, and industrial
  fixation (production of fertilizers).
• 2. Losses

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103
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 1. Inputs
• The largest pool of N is in the
  atmosphere. Nitrogen enters ecosystems in
  precipitation and dry deposition and by
  lightning, biological fixation, and industrial
  fixation (production of fertilizers).
• 2. Losses
• Ecosystems lose N by leaching through the
  soil, in runoff, by denitrification, and
  during fires and many human activities.

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105
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 1. Inputs
• The largest pool of N is in the
  atmosphere. Nitrogen enters ecosystems in
  precipitation and dry deposition and by
  lightning, biological fixation, and industrial
  fixation (production of fertilizers).
• 2. Losses
• Ecosystems lose N by leaching through the
  soil, in runoff, by denitrification, and
  during fires and many human activities.
• 3. Internal cycling (recycling)

106
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 2. Losses
• Ecosystems lose N by leaching through the
  soil, in runoff, by denitrification, and
  during fires and many human activities.
• 3. Internal cycling (recycling)
• Recycling provides the most important
  source of N for most organisms.

107
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 2. Losses
• Ecosystems lose N by leaching through the
  soil, in runoff, by denitrification, and
  during fires and many human activities.
• 3. Internal cycling (recycling)
• Recycling provides the most important
  source of N for most organisms. Recycling
  requires plant uptake as well as
  decomposition and conversion of organic N to
  inorganic N such as nitrate or ammonium.

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109
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 3. Internal cycling (recycling)
• Recycling provides the most important
  source of N for most organisms. Recycling
  requires plant uptake as well as
  decomposition and conversion of organic N to
  inorganic N such as nitrate or ammonium.
• 4. Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle (FIG.
  17)

110
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 3. Internal cycling (recycling)
• Recycling provides the most important
  source of N for most organisms. Recycling
  requires plant uptake as well as
  decomposition and conversion of organic N to
  inorganic N such as nitrate or ammonium.
• 4. Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle (FIG.
  17)
• Most human disturbances disrupt the plant
  uptake part of the N cycle, which creates
  excess N in the ecosystem.

111
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112
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 3. Internal cycling (recycling)
• Recycling provides the most important
  source of N for most organisms. Recycling
  requires plant uptake as well as
  decomposition and conversion of organic N to
  inorganic N such as nitrate or ammonium.
• 4. Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle (FIG.
  17)
• Most human disturbances disrupt the plant
  uptake part of the N cycle, which creates
  excess N in the ecosystem. We also add
  extra N by applying fertilizers and may cause
  losses of N from ecosystems.

113
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114
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• C. The nitrogen cycle (FIGS. 16,17)
• 4. Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle (FIG.
  17)
• Most human disturbances disrupt the plant
  uptake part of the N cycle, which creates
  excess N in the ecosystem. We also add
  extra N by applying fertilizers and may cause
  losses of N from ecosystems.
• D. The phosphorus cycle (FIG. 18)
• 1. Inputs
• 2. Losses
• 3. Internal cycling
• 4. Human impacts on the phosphorus cycle

115
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• D. The phosphorus cycle (FIG. 18)
• 1. Inputs
• The largest pool of phosphorus is in marine
  sediments at the bottom of the oceans.
• 2. Losses
• 3. Internal cycling
• 4. Human impacts on the phosphorus cycle

116
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• D. The phosphorus cycle (FIG. 18)
• 1. Inputs
• The largest pool of phosphorus is in marine
  sediments at the bottom of the oceans.
  Inputs to the P cycle are from weathering
  of rock or sediments.
• 2. Losses
• 3. Internal cycling
• 4. Human impacts on the phosphorus cycle

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118
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• D. The phosphorus cycle (FIG. 18)
• 1. Inputs
• The largest pool of phosphorus is in marine
  sediments at the bottom of the oceans.
  Inputs to the P cycle are from weathering
  of rock or sediments.
• 2. Losses
• 3. Internal cycling
• 4. Human impacts on the phosphorus cycle

119
Lecture 17 Flows of Energy and Matter

• IV. Cycling of Matter (Biogeochemistry)
• D. The phosphorus cycle (FIG. 18)
• 1. Inputs
• The largest pool of phosphorus is in marine
  sediments at the bottom of the oceans.
  Inputs to the P cycle are from weathering
  of rock or sediments.
• 2. Losses
• Losses are primarily by leaching through
  the soil profile and in runoff.