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PERCEPTION AND PERSONALITY

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Title: PERCEPTION AND PERSONALITY


1
CHAPTER 2
  • PERCEPTION AND PERSONALITY

2
What is Perception?
  • Perception The process of recognizing and
    understanding others
  • By understanding perception, managers can deal
    with others effectively

3
Accuracy in Perceiving Others
  • Being able to observe anothers particular
    emotion can help us watch the effects of our
    words.
  • Ways to read others
  • Facial Expressions
  • Other Nonverbal Cues
  • Appearance and physical attractiveness

4
Facial Expressions
  • Convey universal cues of internal emotions yet
    can be distorted
  • Research has identified clues that can help
    determine the sincerity of someones facial
    expressions
  • Time between event and reaction is too great the
    reaction is probably dishonest

5
Facial Expressions (cont.)
  • If all aspects of expressions dont agree deceit
    may be involved
  • Very brief expressions convey genuine feelings
  • Shifts in tone or pitch of voice often denotes
    deception

6
Other Nonverbal Cues
  • Important in situations where people are formally
    evaluated
  • Have a real affect on perceptions of job
    interviewers
  • Examples posture shifts, scratching, licking of
    lips denotes nervousness

7
Other Nonverbal Cues (cont.)
  • Two important nonverbal cues
  • Eye contact
  • Appearance and physical attractiveness

8
Eye Contact
  • Most important nonverbal cue
  • Too much eye contact is perceived to be rude
  • Too little suggests that people may be trying to
    hide something

9
Appearance and Physical Attractiveness
  • Contribute to perceptual judgments
  • Different attributes associated
  • Physically attractive people are perceived as
    sociable, intelligent, socially skilled, mentally
    healthy, and less lonely than unattractive people
  • Physical beauty is also beneficial in generating
    higher initial salary offers

10
Appearance and Physical Attractiveness (cont.)
  • Practical implications
  • One should be properly groomed and dressed to
    maximize ones attractiveness to benefit from
    this perceiver tendency

11
Good Judges of the Personalities of Others
  • Such individuals, according to research,
    typically possess high intelligence, interests,
    emotional adjustment, and specialization in
    physical sciences
  • People interested in social sciences may be
    overly sensitive to small differences among people

12
Obstacles to Accurate Perception
  • Common obstacles to perception include
  • Stereotyping
  • Halo Effect
  • Projection
  • Perceptual distortion
  • Subliminal Influences
  • Selective Perception

13
Stereotyping
  • Judgments of others that are based on group
    membership
  • Can provide a short cut for evaluation, but may
    be dangerous due to potential for error
  • The kernel of truth notion of stereotypes
  • Hold true for groups, not individuals

14
Halo Effect
  • Occurs when a perceiver uses a general impression
    of favorableness or un-favorableness as basis for
    judgments about more specific traits
  • Perceivers evaluation is influenced by an
    overall impression

15
Halo Effect (cont.)
  • Implicit personality
  • Type of halo
  • Traits are linked
  • Example
  • An aggressive person energetic

16
Projection
  • Occurs when a perceiver ascribes own feelings and
    attributes to others
  • Defense mechanism that protects people from
    unpleasant realities

17
Perceptual Distortion
  • Occurs when a perceiver simply denies that
    something occurred or that s/he witnessed
    something

18
Subliminal Influences
  • Are below our threshold of awareness
  • Existence of subliminal influences demonstrated
    by successful use of posthypnotic suggestions

19
Selective Perception
  • Tendency to be influenced by our own interests
  • Interpret problem situation in light of our own
    background and interest

20
Understanding Attributions
  • Attribution Theory
  • Focuses on the inference process used to deduce
    anothers dispositions or traits from
    observations of behavior
  • People perceive behavior as being caused,
    distinguishing between internal or external
    causality

21
Understanding Attributions (cont.)
  • Outcomes are perceived as a result of
    environmental and personal forces and personal
    power and effort

22
Tendencies to Distort Behavior
  • Fundamental Attribution Theory
  • Attribute behaviors of others to internal factors
  • Leads people to blame the victims of misfortune
  • Self Serving Bias
  • Take credit for success and blame failure on
    external factors

23
Tendencies to Distort Behavior (cont.)
  • Manifest when people compare themselves to others
    on subjective and socially desirable dimensions

24
Kelleys Theory of Causal Attribution
  • Judgments influenced by three sources
  • Agreement
  • Consistency
  • Distinctiveness

25
Personality
  • The relatively enduring individual traits and
    dispositions that form a pattern distinguishing
    one person from all others
  • Represents stylistic differences in behavior of
    people

26
What Determines Personality?
  • Heredity
  • Personality is determined at conception by
    individuals genes
  • Situations
  • Situations that a person is exposed to can
    shape/alter personality traits

27
What Determines Personality? (cont.)
  • Environmental Influences
  • Birth order
  • Results of experience shape and alter personality
  • Integrated View
  • Heredity may predispose a person to certain
    patterns of behavior

28
What Determines Personality?(cont.)
  • Environmental forces may precipitate more
    specific patterns of action

29
Assessing Personality Traits
  • Personality Ratings
  • Situational Tests
  • Personality Inventories
  • Projective Techniques

30
Personality Ratings
  • Typically involve the use of five or seven-point
    scales containing a list of adjectives acting as
    anchors for the scales
  • Approach is open to various interpretations of
    users
  • Improvement is seen when scales are tied to
    specific behavioral dimensions e.g.
    competitiveness

31
Personality Ratings (cont.)
  • Observations of rater can distort results

32
Situational Tests
  • Involve the direct observation of an individuals
    behavior in a setting designed to provide
    information about personality
  • Very expensive
  • Less subjective than rating scales
  • Assessment in natural settings

33
Situational Tests (cont.)
  • Certain traits dont lend to this

34
Personality Inventories
  • The most widely used method of assessing
    personality characteristics
  • Ease of administration
  • Social Desirability is a potential problem, where
    people answer as they perceive they should and
    not according to their actual feelings

35
Projective Techniques
  • Designed to probe subtle aspects of personality
  • Based on belief of individualistic interpretation
  • Types of Projective Techniques
  • Story Telling
  • Sentence Completion

36
Story Telling
  • Good in standardized interpretation, reliability,
    and usefulness
  • Most widely used is TAT, Thematic Apperception
    Test
  • 20 Pictures, each portraying a social setting of
    ambiguous meaning

37
Sentence Completion
  • Asks respondents to supply endings for a series
    of partial sentences
  • Best used when respondents have little to gain by
    faking answers
  • Team building exercises may appropriately use
    this technique

38
Dimensions of Personality
  • Locus of Control
  • The Work Ethic
  • Cognitive Style
  • Moral Maturity
  • The Big Five Model

39
Locus of Control
  • Extent to which individuals believe that control
    over their lives lies either internally or
    externally

40
Internal Locus of Control
  • Belief by people that they do have control over
    their own destinies
  • These individuals have higher incomes, hold
    higher status jobs, and advance more rapidly in
    their careers

41
External Locus of Control
  • Belief by people that their fate is determined by
    external forces
  • Americans are becoming more externally oriented
  • Prefer extrinsic rewards e.g. pay
  • Managers should understand loci of control to
    better tailor their reward systems to individual
    needs

42
Work Ethic
  • Belief in dignity of all work, contempt for
    idleness and self-indulgence
  • Belief that if you work hard, you will be
    rewarded
  • Stable disposition
  • Those who believe in strong work ethic tend to be
    more accepting of authoritarian leadership

43
Work Ethic (cont.)
  • These individuals will perform dull tasks without
    incentives
  • Work ethic in U.S. may be waning

44
Cognitive Style
  • Carl Jungs proposal modes of problem solving
  • Four Dimensions
  • Introvert vs. Extrovert
  • (inner v. outer world)
  • Thinking vs. Feeling
  • (logic v. subjective view)

45
Cognitive Style (cont.)
  • Sensing vs. Intuiting
  • (detail v. broad focus)
  • Judging vs. Perceiving
  • (resolution v. flexibility)
  • Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
  • Measurement of four dimensions giving the 16
    cognitive styles
  • Aid for improving work team functioning

46
Moral Maturity
  • Model of moral judgement by Kohlberg
  • Emphasizes cognitive processes which characterize
    individuals making ethical decisions
  • Three levels with six stages
  • Preconvention level
  • Conventional level
  • Principled level

47
Moral Maturity (cont.)
  • Moral maturity tests

48
The Big Five Model of Personality
  • Directed at the work place
  • Five dimensions of personality
  • Agreeableness
  • Conscientiousness
  • Emotional Adjustment
  • Extroversion
  • Inquisitiveness
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