Classroom Instruction That Works ResearchBased Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement

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Classroom Instruction That Works Research-Based
Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement

• By Robert J. Marzono
• Debra J. Pickering
• Jane E. Pollock
• Published 2005
• Expands on the 2000 What Works in Classroom
  Instruction by Marzano, Gaddy and Dean

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Effect Sizes and Other Exciting Topics

• Educational research
• Meta-analysis
• Standard deviation units
• Percentile gains
• Negative effects
• Normal distribution
• One size does not fit all
• The unknown precede with caution

No, its not that exciting, but your friendly
school psychologist loves this part! Meeting
strict standards for reviewing and comparing
research allows us to feel confident applying it!
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Three Elements of Effective Pedagogy
Four
Instructional Strategies
Classroom Management
Curriculum Design
Assessment Practices
Effective Pedagogy
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Big Ideas

• Applying the Research on Instruction What Works
• Individual teacher impact much higher than
  previously believed
• Research-Based Strategies
• Identifying Similarities and Differences
• Summarizing and Note Taking
• Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition
• Homework and Practice
• Nonlinguistic Representations
• Cooperative Learning
• Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback
• Generating and Testing Hypotheses
• Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers

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Identifying Similarities and Difference

• Pattern-seeking human brain
• Making comparisons
• Classifying
• Creating metaphors
• Creating analogies
• Teacher-directed and student-directed

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Summarizing and Note Taking

• Summarize
• Identify critical information
• Analyze it deeply
• Understand the structure of information
• Take Notes
• Teach HOW to take notes
• Review and revise
• Use as study guide for test

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Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition

• Belief in effort (not luck, other people, or
  ability) is most important
• Not all students realize the importance of effort
• We can change their beliefs to emphasize effort
• Rewards positive or negative?
• When is it most effective to reward?
• What are the most effective rewards?

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Homework and Practice

• Opportunity to deepen understanding and sharpen
  skills taught in class
• Purpose should be clearly articulated to students
  and parents
• Work towards both accuracy and speed
  (understanding and fluency)

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Nonlinguistic Representations

• Reflect on and create mental pictures
• Interpret and generate graphic representations
• When tied to linguistic statements, strengthens
  understanding and memory

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Cooperative Learning

• Positive interdependence
• Face-to-face interaction
• Individual and group accountability
• Interpersonal and small group skills
• Group processing

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Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback

• Goal setting
• Narrow the focus
• Seek generalization
• Utilize student input in goal setting
• Feedback is
• Corrective and instructional (not just right or
  wrong)
• Timely
• Specific to skill or knowledge
• A way of self-monitoring

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Generating and Testing Hypotheses

• Applying knowledge
• Deductive and inductive reasoning
• Giving written and verbal justification
• Applicable to many subject areas

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Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers

• Activate prior knowledge
• Focus on IMPORTANT, rather than unusual
• Aim for higher order questioning
• Utilize wait time
• Incorporate before, during and after
• Choose the right tool for the situation

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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 2
• Similarities and Differences

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Research and Theory on Identifying Similarities
and Differences

• Explicitly teaching students to identify
  similarities and differences enhances their
  ability to understand and use knowledge

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Research and Theory on Identifying Similarities
and Differences

• Providing opportunities for students to
  independently identify similarities and
  differences enhances their ability to understand
  and use knowledge

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Research and Theory on Identifying Similarities
and Differences

• Representing similarities and differences in
  graphic or symbolic form enhances students
  understanding of and ability to use knowledge

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Research and Theory on Identifying Similarities
and Differences

• Identification of similarities and differences
  can be accomplished in a variety of highly
  interactive ways
• Comparing
• Classifying
• Creating metaphors
• Creating analogies

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Comparing Classroom Practice

• Teacher-Directed Comparison Tasks
• Items
• Characteristics for comparison

Identifying the IMPORTANT characteristics is key
when making comparisons
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Comparing

• Student-Directed Comparison Tasks
• Items
• Characteristics for comparison

Identifying the IMPORTANT characteristics is key
when making comparisons
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Graphic Organizers for Comparisons
Comparison Matrix
Venn Diagram
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Classifying Classroom Practice

• Teacher-Directed Classification Tasks
• Elements
• Categories

Critical to the task of classifying is an
understanding of the rules that govern a class or
category Membership.
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Classifying

• Student-Directed Classification Tasks
• Elements
• Categories

Critical to the task of classifying is an
understanding of the rules that govern a class or
category Membership.
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Graphic Organizers for Classification
Categories
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Metaphors

• Teacher-Directed Metaphors
• First element
• Abstract relationship

The key to using metaphors is the understanding
that the two items are connected by an abstract
or nonliteral relationship
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Metaphors

• Student-Directed Metaphors
• First element
• Abstract relationship

The key to using metaphors is the understanding
that the two items are connected by an abstract
or nonliteral relationship
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Analogies

• Teacher-Directed Analogies
• Discuss and guide analysis of first relationship
• Add Multiply
• Discuss and guide analysis of how first
  relationship might apply to second set
• Subtract Divide
• Teach whole analogy
• Add Subtract Multiply Divide
• Scaffold task

The most complex format, requiring students to
analyze relationships between relationships
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Analogies

• Student-Directed Analogies
• Provide first relationship
• Add Multiply
• Students analyze and create second set
• Subtract Divide
• Scaffold task

The most complex format, requiring students to
analyze relationships between relationships
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Graphic Organizers for Analogies
is to
thermometer is to temperature
(relationship) _______________
(relationship) first measures incremental changes
in second
is to
odometer is to distance
as
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Similarities and Differences

• Teach directly
• Have students practice independently
• Teach and use graphic or symbolic representations
• Use a variety of activities

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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 3
• Summarizing and Note Taking

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Summarizing

• Research and Theory
• Determine critical information
• Delete some
• Substitute some
• Keep some
• Analyze at a deep level
• Comprehension is critical
• Understand the structure of the material
• Components and features
• Knowing where to look

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SummarizingRule Based Strategy, Summary Frames,
Reciprocal Teaching

• Classroom Practice
• Rule-based Strategy
• Delete trivial information
• Delete redundant material
• Categorize use superordinate terms
• Select or create a topic sentence

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SummarizingRule Based Strategy, Summary Frames,
Reciprocal Teaching

• Classroom Practice
• Summary Frames
• Narrative Frame
• Topic-Restriction-Illustration Frame (expository)
• Definition Frame
• Argumentation Frame
• Problem/Solution Frame
• Conversation Frame

Pg. 35-41
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SummarizingRule Based Strategy, Summary Frames,
Reciprocal Teaching

• Classroom Practice
• Reciprocal Teaching
• Summarizing
• Questioning
• Clarifying
• Predicting

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Note Taking

• Research and Theory
• Succinctly explain the critical information
• Verbatim least effective
• A work in progress
• Review
• Revise
• Teacher direction
• Study guides for tests
• More is better than less for test performance

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Note Taking

• Classroom Practice
• Teacher-prepared notes
• Clear, organized, accurate
• Identifies most important content in summary form
• Understanding of concepts, not just memorization
  of facts
• Student format for notes
• Informal outlines
• 2 column notes
• Webs/maps
• Combination notes

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2-column definitions

• TERM DEFINITION
• acute
• obtuse
• right
• complementary
• supplementary
• alternate interior
• alternate exterior

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2-column note taking from lecture or books
Key Idea Explanations, Examples Bar
graph Shows information in picture form Key
Idea Axis Xy Rule Rule
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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 4
• Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition

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• Success is generally attributed to?
• Ability
• Effort
• Other People
• Luck

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Research and TheoryReinforcing Effort

• Attitudes and beliefs impact student performance
• Not all students realize the importance of
  believing in effort
• Students can learn to change their beliefs about
  effort

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Classroom Practice Reinforcing Effort

• Teaching
• Keeping track of effort and performance

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Research and TheoryProviding Recognition

• Would you be motivated by more money?
• Would you do it for the teacher of the year
  award?
• Would you be motivated by increased student
  performance in your classroom?
• Would you do it to see MEAP/ACT/SAT scores
  improve for your students?

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Research and TheoryProviding Recognition

• 1. Rewards do not necessarily have a negative
  effect on intrinsic motivation.
• 2. Reward is most effective when it is contingent
  on the attainment of some standard of
  performance.
• 3. Abstract symbolic recognition is more
  effective than tangible rewards.

Pg. 56 chart
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Classroom PracticeProviding Recognition

• Personal Recognition
• Pause, Prompts, and Praise
• Concrete Symbols of Recognition

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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 5
• Homework and Practice

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HomeworkResearch and Theory

• The amount of homework assigned should vary by
  grade level. (effect pg. 61 quote and
  recommendations pg 62)
• Parent involvement in homework should be kept to
  a minimum.
• The purpose should be identified and clearly
  articulated to students and parents.
• If you assign it, you should comment on it.

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Classroom PracticeAssigning Homework

• 1. Establish and communicate a homework policy.
• 2. Design homework assignments that clearly
  articulate the purpose and outcome.
• 3. Vary the approaches to providing feedback.

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PracticeResearch and Theory

• Mastering a skill requires a fair amount of
  focused practice.
• While practicing , students should adapt and
  shape what they have learned.

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Practicing SkillsClassroom Practice

• Charting Accuracy and Speed
• Designing Practice Assignments that Focus on
  Specific Elements of a Complex Skill or Process
• Planning Time for Students to Increase Their
  Conceptual Understanding of Skills or Processes

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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 6
• Nonlinguistic Representations

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Nonlinguistic Representations

• Reflect on and create mental pictures
• Interpret and generate graphic representations
• When tied to linguistic statements, strengthens
  understanding and memory

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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 7
• Cooperative Learning

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Research and TheoryCooperative Learning

• Five Defining Elements
• Positive Interdependence
• Face-to-face promotive interaction
• Individual and group accountability
• Interpersonal and small group skills
• Group processing

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Research and TheoryCooperative Learning

• Three generalizations
• Organizing groups based on ability levels should
  be done sparingly.
• Cooperative groups should be kept rather small in
  size.
• Cooperative learning should be applied
  consistently and systematically, but not overused.

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Classroom PracticeCooperative Learning

• Using a variety of criteria
• Informal, formal and base groups
• Managing group size
• Combining cooperative learning with other
  classroom structures

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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 8
• Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback

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• Write it down. Written goals have a way of
  transforming wishes into wants cannots into
  cans dreams into plans and plans into reality.
  Don't just think it - ink it!

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Goal Setting

• Process of establishing a direction for learning

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Goal Setting

• Most successful people have mastered goal setting
  to help them achieve short term and long term
  desires

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Goal Setting

• Instructional goals narrow what students focus on

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Goal Setting

• Instructional goals need to be specific, but
  should not be too specific.

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Goal Setting

• Students should be encouraged to personalize the
  teachers goal

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Personalized Goal Setting Helpful Tools

• Sentence Stems
• I want to know more about
• I know that the heart pumps blood through the
  body, but I want to know how a heart attack
  happens.
• I want to know how I can use a2 b2 c2 in real
  life.
• I want to know if the intestines are really four
  miles long.
• I want to know why the answer to multiplication
  of fractions is smaller than either of the
  fractions multiplied.

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Personalized Goal Setting Helpful Tools

• Contracts
• - Contracts allow students the opportunity to
  state the goals they will try to attain and the
  grade they will receive if they do attain them

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Classroom Instruction that Works

• Providing Feedback

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Providing Feedback

• The most powerful single modification that
  enhances achievement is feedback. The simplest
  prescription for improving education must be
  dollops of feedback (p.9)
• 
  John Hattie
• University of Aukland

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Providing Feedback

• Effect sizes on providing feedback are generally
  medium to large
• _____________________________________
• .0 none percentile gain of 0
• .20 small percentile gain of 8
• .50 medium percentile gain of 20
• .80 large percentile gain of 29

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Providing Feedback

• Feedback should be corrective
• Provide students with an explanation of what they
  are doing that is correct and what they are doing
  that is not correct

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Providing Feedback

• Different ways of giving feedback on tests have
  varied impacts of learning
• Providing students with an explanation as to what
  is right and what is wrong with their answers (ES
  .53)
• Allowing them to repeat the task (retake test)
  until they can succeed (ES .53)
• Providing them with the correct answer (ES .22)
• Telling students if answer is right or wrong (ES
  -.08) (simply telling them their score)

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Timing of Feedback

• Feedback should be timely
• The more delay that occurs in giving feedback,
  the less improvement there is in achievement
• In test taking situations,
• Immediately after a test (ES .72)
• Delayed after a test (ES .56)
• Immediately after a test item (ES .19)

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Timing of Tests

• Timing of tests
• One day after learning takes place (ES
  .74)
• One week after learning takes place (ES .
  53)
• Longer than one week after learning takes place
  (ES . 26)
• Immediately after learning takes place (ES
  . 17)

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Providing Feedback

• Feedback should be specific to a criterion
• reference a specific level of skill or knowledge
• Need to provide feedback on what students have
  learned about the content rather than how they
  stand relative to others or what grade they
  received

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Providing FeedbackHelpful Tools

• Students Own Progress Monitoring
• Students Progress Monitoring of Others
• Rubrics

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Providing Feedback

• Students can effectively provide some of their
  own feedback
• Students can monitor their own progress
• Keep track of their performance over time
• Graph correct number of words (problems) correct
  in a minute
• Read Naturally - reading
• Fast Facts - math

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Providing Feedback

• Students can effectively provide feedback to each
  other
• Peer Assisted Learning Strategies
• Reading and Math

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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 9
• Generating and Testing Hypotheses

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Research and Theory onGenerating and Testing
Hypotheses

• By definition, the process of generating and
  testing hypotheses involves the application of
  knowledge

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Research and Theory on Generating and Testing
Hypotheses

• Deductive reasoning

• Inductive Reasoning

Know general rule
Action or events happen
Shape your understanding of the general rule
Predict future action or event
Refer to Effect Sizes - Pg. 106
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Research and Theory on Generating and Testing
Hypotheses

• Explaining the hypotheses and the conclusions,
  particularly in writing, leads to deeper
  understanding of the principles

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Research and Theory on Generating and Testing
Hypotheses

• Applicable to many subject areas
• Specific Mathematics examples

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Classroom Practice forGenerating and Testing
Hypotheses

• A variety of structured tasks
• Systems Analysis
• Problem Solving
• Historical Investigation
• Invention
• Experimental Inquiry
• Decision Making

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Classroom Practice forGenerating and Testing
Hypotheses

• Deeper understanding develops through the process
  of explaining, orally or in writing, your
  thinking.
• Teachers can

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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 10
• Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers

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Research and Theory onCues and Questions

• Activate prior knowledge and you increase
  learning
• Lets compare the effect sizes on page 112.

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Research and Theory onCues and Questions

• Focus on IMPORTANT, rather than unusual
  information

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Research and Theory onCues and Questions

• Aim for higher order questioning

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Research and Theory onCues and Questions

• Utilize wait time

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Research and Theory onCues and Questions

• Incorporate questions before, during and after
  learning experiences

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Classroom Practice forCues and Questions

• Explicit Cues

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Classroom Practice forCues and Questions

• Questions that elicit inferences

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Classroom Practice forCues and Questions

• Analytical Questions

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Research and Theory onAdvance Organizers

• Effect sizes, page 117
• Important, not unusual
• Higher-level rather than lower-level thinking
• Information that needs organizing
• Choose the right tool for the job

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Research and Theory onAdvance Organizers

• Expository Advance Organizers (describing the
  content)
• Narrative Organizers (telling the information in
  a story format)
• Skimming the text (read the bold print or
  summary)
• Graphic Advance Organizers

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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 11
• Teaching Specific Types of Knowledge
• Vocabulary, Details, Organizing Ideas, Skills and
  Processes

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Research and Theory on Teaching Vocabulary Terms

• Students must encounter words in context more
  than once to learn them.
• Check out effect sizes on page 125. Compare the
  notes youve taken about effect sizes with a
  partner.

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Research and Theory on Teaching Vocabulary Terms

• Instruction in new words (prior instruction)
  enhances learning those words in context.
• Paired language is when you use both the target
  vocabulary word and a student-friendly
  explanation in the same sentence. For example,
  Look for the parallel lines, the ones in the
  same plane that wont ever intersect or cross
  each other, in this exercise.

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Research and Theory on Vocabulary Terms

• One of the best ways to
• learn a new word is to
• associate an image with it.

Parallel (Pair of lls)
Effect Sizes page 127
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Research and Theory on Vocabulary Terms

• Direct vocabulary instruction works.

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Research and Theory on Vocabulary Terms

• Teach the most important words for your content
  area.

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Classroom Practice inTeaching Vocabulary

• Identify what is critical
• Teach with a systematic process
• Student friendly explanation or description
• Nonlinguistic representation
• Examples and non-examples
• Student-generated explanations
• Student-generated nonlinguistic representations
• Periodic practice, review, and check for accuracy

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Classroom Practice inTeaching Vocabulary

• With mathematical vocabulary is it important that
  you teach, and students understand
• Synonyms (an axiom, or a postulate, is a rule
  that is accepted as true without proof)
• Related Terms (kilometers and miles are both
  units of measure but are not identical in length)
• Superordinate and category terms (a cube is type
  of three-dimensional solid or three-dimensional
  solids include the cube, sphere and cylinder,
  etc.)
• Opposites (Kdg. example addition is putting
  together, subtraction is taking away)

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Research and Theory onTeaching Details

• Systematic, multiple exposure to details
• Details are remembered better, both immediately
  and one year after instruction, when
  dramatization is added.
• Figure 11.3, page 130
• Effect sizes, page 131

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Classroom Practice for Teaching Details

• Multiple exposures
• (Read and discuss page 132)
• Dramatic Representation
• What does THAT look like?

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Research and Theory onOrganizing Ideas

• Students commonly have misconceptions about
  organizing ideas when they are first introduced
  to them.
• Correcting misconceptions
• Discussion
• Argumentation
• Effect sizes Page 135

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Classroom Practice for Organizing Ideas

• Making sure that students can clearly articulate
  statements of generalizations and principles and
  provide numerous examples
• Direct instruction
• Multiple exposures
• Writing
• Helping students increase their understanding of
  generalizations and principles and clear up
  misconceptions about them
• Discussion
• Argumentation

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Research and Theory onMental Skills
Discuss with a partner

• The discovery approach is difficult to use
  effectively with skills.
• When teachers use discovery learning, they should
  organize examples into categories that represent
  the different approaches to the skill.
• Skills are most useful when learned to the level
  of automaticity.

• Tactics -
• Algorithms -

Take notes from page 137
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Classroom Practice for Teaching Skills

• Carefully structure discovery learning to ensure
  that students learn specific skills (organize
  examples)
• Plan for DISTRIBUTED practice to emphasize the
  importance of a skill

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Research, Theory, and Classroom Practice on
Processes

• Students should practice the parts of a process
  in the context of the overall process
• Teachers should emphasize the metacognitive
  control of processes
• Plenty of guided practice
• Self-monitoring by students
• Encourage generalization

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Looking closer . . .

• Chapter 12
• Using the Nine
• Categories in
• Instructional
• Planning

113
Quick Review of Nine Categories of BEST PRACTICE

• Identifying similarities and differences
• Summarizing and note taking
• Reinforcing effort and providing recognition
• Homework and practice
• Nonlinguistic representations
• Cooperative learning
• Setting objectives and providing feedback
• Generating and testing hypotheses
• Questions, cues and advance organizers

114
At the Beginning of a Unit of Instruction

• Teacher sets clear learning goals (Chapter 8)
• Fairly narrow focus, but not too specific
• Students identify and record their own learning
  goals (Chapter 8)
• Make connections between the topic of study and
  personal life
• Interact with peers as they set goals and discuss
  ways to achieve them

115
During a Unit of Instruction

• Monitor learning goals
• Provide students feedback and help them
  self-assess their progress toward achieving their
  goals. Teach and use rubrics as a tool.
  (Chapter 8)
• Ask students to keep track of their effort and
  its impact on achievement. Students share with
  each other. (Chapter 4)
• Periodically celebrate legitimate progress toward
  learning goals. (Chapter 4)

116
During a Unit of Instruction

• Introduce New Knowledge
• Activate prior knowledge (Chapter 2 and 10)
• Provide an advance organizer (Chapter 10)
• Expository Advance Organizers
• Narrative Advance Organizers
• Skimming as a Form of Advance Organizer
• Graphic Advance Organizer
• Compare what is newly learned to what was already
  known (Chapter 2)
• Compare/Contrast (Chapter 2) and Cooperative
  Learning Discussion (Chapter 7)

117
During a Unit of Instruction

• Introducing New Knowledge
• Have students summarize and take notes on the
  information being taught (Chapter 3)
• Highlight critical information
• Teach for deep understanding
• Understand the structure of the information so
  you can better summarize it
• Topic-Restriction-Illustration Frame (page 37)
• Definition Frame (page 38)
• Argumentation Frame (page 39)
• Problem/Solution Frame (page 40)

118
During a Unit of Instruction

• Use nonlinguistic representations to teach and
  have students represent what they are learning in
  nonlinguistic ways. (Chapter 6)

• graphic representations
• symbols
• associate an image with new vocabulary (Chapter
  11)

119
During a Unit of Instruction

• Alternate the mode of learning so that sometimes
  your students work in small cooperative groups
  and other times as individuals. Aim for active
  engagement. (Chapter 7)

120
During a Unit of Instruction

• Practice, Review, Apply Knowledge
• Assign homework that requires students to
  practice, review, and apply what they have
  learned however be sure to give students
  explicit feedback on the accuracy of all
  homework. (Chapter 5)
• Grade important, newly-taught concept work and
  give feedback about conceptual, skill, or process
  errors. (Chapters 4 and 8)
• Give credit/no credit for most practice and
  review work provide opportunities for
  self-checking (overhead or key) and ask students
  to graph their own accuracy and effort. (Chapter
  5)
• Provide specific feedback for application of
  knowledge work.

121
During a Unit of Instruction

• Practice, Review, and Apply Knowledge
• Engage students in long-term projects that
  involve generating and testing hypotheses.
  (Chapter 9)
• Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
• Justifying your rationale, esp. in writing,
  deepens understanding

122
During a Unit of Instruction

• Notes are a Work in Progress
• Students revise the linguistic and nonlinguistic
  representations in their notes as they refine
  their understanding of the content. (Chapters 3
  and 6)

123
At the End of a Unit of Instruction

• Provide students with clear assessments of their
  progress on each learning goal. (Chapters 4 and
  8)
• Students self-assess on each learning goal and
  compare results to teacher assessments. (Chapters
  4 and 8)
• Student articulate what they have learned about
  the content and themselves as learners.
  (Chapters 4 and 8)

124
Excellent Instruction is the KEY

• There is no single determinant of student success
  more critical than the teachers instruction.
• Mortimore and Sammons (1987) found that teaching
  had 6 to 10 times as much impact on achievement
  as all other factors combined.
• Odden and Wallace (2003) conclude that improved
  classroom instruction is the prime factor to
  produce student achievement gains.
• Sanders Horn (1994) found that three years of
  effective teaching accounts on average for an
  improvement of 35 to 50 percentile points.
• (Schmoker, 2006)