Metabolism is the transformation of energy and matter within the body'

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Anabolic Metabolism

• Metabolism is the transformation of energy and
  matter within the body.
• Anabolism constructive metabolism
• Energy IS Required (ATP)
• ATP nucleotide Major energy currency

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• Provides substances needed for growth and repair.
• Occurs by dehydration synthesis when two smaller
  molecules are joined water is lost.
• Polysaccharides, lipids, proteins are
  constructed.

Molecules join
H2O lost
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Catabolic Metabolism

• There are different metabolic reactions. These
  reactions occur one after the other.
• The product of one reaction is the being the next
  reaction.
• Catabolism is a type of metabolic reaction.
  Anabolism is the other metabolic reaction.
• Catabolism, the opposite of anabolism, is the
  breaking down of larger molecules into smaller
  ones. For example...

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Hydrolysis

• An example of catabolism is hydrolysis, which can
  decompose lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins
• Hydrolysis is the opposite of dehydration
  synthesis because a water molecule is needed to
  split the carbs, lipids, and proteins.
• It breaks down carbs into monosaccharide
  proteins into amino acids fats into glycerol
  and nucleic acids into nucleotides.
• During hydrolysis, the bond between the simple
  sugars break. The water molecules supply a
  Hydrogen atom to the sugar molecule and a
  hydroxyl group to the other.
• This doesnt occur automatically. Hydrolysis
  requires certain enzymes in order to occur.

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Enzymes Their Actions/ Metabolic Pathways

• enzymes proteins that speed up biochemical
  reactions. (globular proteins)
• Enzymes provide the energy for metabolic actions
  to occur.
• Each enzyme has their own area which is a
  pocket-shaped gap in the molecule. This gap is
  called an active site.
• Substrates (reactants) ,enzyme working on a
  particular molecule.
• Enzymes are used in small quantities b/c they are
  not always consumed and can be reused multiple
  times.
• Enzymes are used to quickly convert the
  substrates or reactants, into products.
  (afterward the substrate and enzyme split which
  releases the enzyme and they enzyme is free to be
  used again.)

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• The enzyme catalase is helpful when cleansing a
  cut with hydrogen peroxide. Injured cells release
  catalase. Then bubbles of oxygen are released
  which clears the cut of debris from places that
  are hard to reach.
• Enzyme catalysis
• Substrate Enzyme Enzyme- Product
  Enzyme
• Subtrate Complex
• Metabolic Pathway sequence of chemical reactions
  that occur in an organism.
• The enzymes maybe become saturated or filled to
  capacity when the substrate concentration goes
  over a certain level. When this happens it no
  longer affects the reaction rate.
• It is very important that the rate-limiting
  enzyme, (usually used in small amounts) enzyme
  that regulates the rate of a metabolic pathway,
  comes first in the sequence. If it comes later
  some product might accumulate and that will block
  the pathway and the product does not finish.

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Metabolic Pathways

• A rate-limiting enzyme is the 1st in a series.
• A coenzyme, or cofactor, is a non-protein
  component that either helps the active site
  attain its appropriate shape or helps bind the
  enzyme to its substance.
• Some enzymes cant function without a partner.
  EXAMPLE Batman Robin
• Vitamins
• provide coenzymes
• are essential organic molecules that human cells
  cant synthesize
• must come from the diet
• required by the body

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FACTORS(that alter enzymes regulation)

• exposure to excessive heat
• radiation
• electricity
• certain chemicals EX poisons
• fluids w/ extreme pH values

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ATP - the Release of Chemical Energy
ATP is an energy-yielding molecule that
is used mainly by the mitochondrion for the cell
to have energy. When the mitochondrion receives
energy from an outside source, such as nutrients
received from sugars (mainly glucose) and
proteins, the mitochondrion breaks down these
materials into simpler molecules, then reattaches
them to special chemical bonds named adenosine
triphosphate, which is used by the cell to
perform tasks, such as the continuing breakdown
of nutrients that enter the cell or for other
organelles to do their functions that keep the
cell alive.
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Electrons are what fuel the process of ATP.
Coenzymes receive and take electrons away from
six-carbon molecules producing 2 three-carbon
molecules. The electrons are accepted by an ion
in mitochondrion called NAD which is then turned
into G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate). The broken
down sugars bonds are rearranged by glycolytic
reaction, which produces only a small amount of
ATP. A Glycolytic reaction is a weak reaction
that is only capable of capturing about 2 of the
available energy that is released from glucose
during the ATP synthesis. After the energy is
released from the ATP molecules, electrons are
released from it, creating ADP molecules, which
are then returned to the mitochondrion to be used
again for ATP synthesis. ATP is mostly
used by the cell to maintain life and to perform
basic functions such as movement and mitosis, but
the ATP produced by the mitochondrion is also
used by the mitochondrion so that it is able to
break down other nutrients taken in by the cell.
(This image shows the build up and breakdown of
glucose, and how ATP supplies energy and
phosphates to continue the procedure
ATP - the Release of Chemical Energy cont.
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Anaerobic Respiration

• Uses no oxygen.
• Usually referred to as fermentation
• C6H12O6 ---gt 2C3H6O3 2 ATP
• (glucose) (lactic acid)
• One that is anaerobic is called an anaerobe.
• Since oxygen is the final receptor of electrons
  in the electron transport chain and anaerobic has
  no oxygen. To over come this predicament, NADHH
  gives its hydrogen and electrons to pyruvic acid
  which in turn changes to lactic acid.
• This changes NADH back to NAD. When lactic acid
  builds up, it inhibits ATP production and is then
  diffused into blood stream and filtered by liver
  and turned into pyruvic acid. For example, when
  we work out we produce lactic acid and it builds
  up in our muscles. This makes us sore because
  lactic acid is toxic and bad for us.

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Glycolysis

• Translates to the breaking of glucose.
• Breaks down 6 carbon glucose into two 3 carbon
  one.
• Occurs in cytosol.
• Does not need oxygen.
• Three Steps
• 1.
• - Add two phosphate groups to
  glucose.
• - requires ATP, but primes
  molecule for energy releasing reactions
• 2.
• - One 6 carbon glucose in split
  into two 3 carbon glucoses.
• 3.
• - NADH is made.
• - 4 ADP is turned into 4 ATP.
• - Pyruvic acid is made
• This reaction makes hydrogen atoms and they are
  passed by NAD and transform into NADH.

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Aerobic Respiration

• Aerobic Respiration is the process of obtaining
  energy for the cell when oxygen is required.
• After glycolysis, the pyruvic acid generated can
  proceed onto aerobic respiration which includes
  the citric acid cycle and electron transport
  chain.
• These aerobic reactions yield not only CO2 and
  water, but up to 36 ATP molecules per glucose.
• It begins with the pyruvic acid yielded in
  glycolysis moving from the cytosol into the
  mitochondria.

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Aerobic Respiration (cont.)

• From there, enzymes inside the mitochondria
  remove 2 hydrogen atoms, a carbon atom, 2 oxygen
  atoms from the pyruvic acid(C3H4O3).
• This generates NADH( oxidized form of
  Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and CO2,
  leaving a 2-carbon acetic acid(C2H4O2) .
• This acid then combines with a molecule of
  Coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA.
• CoA then carries the acetic acid into the
  citric acid cycle.

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Citric Acid Cycle

• The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical
  reactions that oxidizes certain molecules,
  releasing energy.
• The cycle is the first step of cellular
  respiration that occurs inside the mitochondria.
• The bodys catabolic pathways assemble on the
  Citric Acid Cycle.
• The cycle is the second step in cellular
  respiration.Through glycolysis, glucose is broken
  down into pryuvate. In eukaryotes, pyruvate
  travels to the mitochondria and is changed into
  acetyl-CoA and enters the citric acid cycle.
• The citric acid formed changes through a series
  of reactions back into oxaloacetic acid.(6-carbon
  acid and CoA)
• The cycle repeats until the mitochondrion
  releases oxygen and pyruvic acid (product of
  carbohydrate oxidation).
• For every turn in the cycle, one ATP (chemical
  bonds of energy released from the mitochondrion)
  is directly produced, 8 hydrogens with high
  energy electrons are released , and 2 CO2
  molecules are produced.
• These turns release 4 carbon dioxide molecules
  and 16 hydrogen atoms, along with 2 more
  molecules of ATP.
  
  

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If Oxygen is available, CAC uses oxygen in cell.
Resp. One ATP produced for each cycle. First in
mitoch. Produsces co2 and ATP Sends molecules of
energy to electron transport chain so they can
produce majority of energy in H20 Lots of
enzymes needed Lots have to occur for cell.
Resp. to occur correctly
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ImageTCA_reactions.p
ngfile
difficult
Reference pg. 119 Fig. 4.9 in textbook
Easier
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Electron Transport Chain

• Series of enzyme complexes that carry and pass
  electrons along from one to another.
• The chain passes each electron along, gradually
  lowering the electrons energy level and
  transferring the lost energy to ATP synthase.
• The final enzyme of the chain gives up a pair of
  electrons that combine with two hydrogen ions and
  an atom of oxygen to form a water molecule.

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• Protons are translocated across the membrane,
  from the matrix to the intermembrane space
• Electrons are transported along the membrane,
  through a series of protein carriers
• Oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor,
  combining with electrons and H ions to produce
  water
• As NADH delivers more H and electrons into the
  ETS, the proton gradient increases, with H
  building up outside the inner mitochondrial
  membrane, and OH- inside the membrane.

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Cellular Respiration is the process that releases
energy from molecules such as glucose and makes
it available for cellular use
Occurs in 3 series of reactions glycolysis, the
citric acid cycle, and the electron transport
chain -gt products of these reactions include CO2,
H2O, and energy (38 molecules of ATP) Includes
aerobic reactions (requires oxygen) and anaerobic
reactions (doesnt require oxygen) Glycolysis-
the 6-carbon sugar glucose is broken down in the
cytosol into two 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules
with a net gain of 2 ATP and the release of
high-energy electrons Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs
Cycle)- The 3-carbon pyruvic acids generated by
glycolysis enter the mitochondria. Each loses a
carbon (generating CO2) and is combined with a
coenzyme to form a 2-carbon acetyl coenzyme A
(acetyl CoA). More high-energy electrons
released
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Each acetyl CoA combines with a 4-carbon
oxaloacetic acid to form the 6-carbon citric
acid. For each citric acid, a series of reactions
removes 2 carbons (generating two CO2s),
synthesizes 1 ATP, and releases more high-energy
electrons. Electron Transport Chain- the
high-energy electrons still contain most of the
chemical energy of the original glucose molecule.
Special carrier molecules bring the high-energy
electrons to a series of enzymes that convert
much of the remaining energy to more ATP
molecules. The other products are heat and water.
Image of Cellular Respiration -gt
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Lipid Pathway

• Lipids- organic compounds that include fats,
  oils, and fatlike substances such as cholesterol.
• Lipids supply energy and help build structures,
  such as cell membranes.
• Most common dietary lipids are fats called
  triglycerides.
• Saturated fats are found in food from animals and
  can cause cardiovascular disease.
• Unsaturated fats are found in seeds, peanut and
  plant oils.
• Monounsaturated fats are found in olive, peanut,
  and canola oils and these fats are the
  healthiest.
• Triglyceride consists of glycerol and 3 fatty
  acids.
• Fats contain twice as much energy as proteins or
  carbohydrates.
• The body digests fat from foods into glycerol and
  fatty acids, which enters catabolic pathways to
  provide energy.
• Before triglyceride can release energy it must go
  through hydrolysis.
• They are then transported to the blood and then
  to the tissues.
• Some of the resulting fatty acids can then form
  acetyl coenzyme A by reactions called beta
  oxidation.
• In beta oxidation fatty acids are activated and
  once they are activated other enzymes called
  fatty acid oxidases breaks them down.
• This phase removes two carbon segments of fatty
  acid chains.

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Protein Pathway
Cycle Digestion turns proteins into amino acids.
Then the liver takes the amino acids through
deamination which removes the nitrogen and sends
it to the kidneys. Then amino acids are
decomposed or transferred to several different
places. Some lead to the formation of acetyl
coenzyme a, or go straight to steps of citric
acid cycles. If not used in cycle or captured by
ATP molecules then it forms glucose, fat, or goes
to other uses. The glucose comes from protein
catabolism going through gluconeogenesis to be
part of blood glucose. Other proteins are saved
and used for structural proteins which build/
repair tissues Enzymes which control metabolic
rate, clotting factors, keratins of skin and
hair, elastin and collagen of connective tissue
Hormones or Plasma Proteins which regulate water
balance and muscle components actin and myosin.
Will Gleeson Blk2
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• Purpose Important because they form muscle and
  connective tissues, and make antibodies to fight
  infections. Amino Acids are used to make protein
  molecules as specified by DNA base sequences.
  Also provides energy through helping with ATP and
  Acetyl coenzyme A.

• Sources Come from meat, fish, eggs, milk
  ,poultry, and cereals. They are essential
  proteins (8 in adults- 10 in children) that cant
  be synthesized sufficiently or at all so people
  must eat fish, eggs, and dairy to get them.
  Without all 20 proteins in the body at the same
  time, growth and repair can not occur. The amount
  of dietary protein depends on body size.
• Produced When the processes are done the
  products produced consist of ATP, Acetyl
  coenzyme A, fat, glucose, structural proteins,
  enzymes, hormones, plasma proteins.
• Pages Please turn to pg. 125 and 720 for
  reference of pathways.

Will Gleeson Blk2
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Carbohydrate Storage

• Metabolic pathways are connected in ways that
  allow
• molecules to enter more than one way connected.

• METABOLIC PATHWAY Chemical reactions that occur
  
• Inside the oranganism.

• Carbohydrate Molecules from foods can enter
  through
• Anabolic and catabolic pathways.

• Anabolic - be stored or react to form some of the
  twenty
• different amino acids.

B. Catabolic - used to store energy
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• There is excess glucose in cells that enter
  anabolic carbohydrate
• pathways and be linked so that they are stored
  and form into
• glycogen.

The liver and muscles cells do that best job of
storing carbohydrates
When the glucose level is low, glucose is then
released into the blood.
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Genetic information

• Chromosomes are long molecules of D.N.A and
  protein
• Mitosis passes info of D.N.A to the new cell
• Genetic information tells the cell how to
  construct proteins and what the proteins jobs
  are.
• Gene a particular part of your D.N.A strands
  that contains genetic info.
• Because enzymes control synthesis reactions, the
  4 organic molecule( lipids, carbohydrates,
  protein, nucleic acids) depends on protein,
  therefore needs genetic info to synthesis.
• Genome is the set of genetic info in a cell
• Not all humans have genome proteins encoded.

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Genetics D.N.A

• D.N.A has 2 polynucleotide chains( double helix)
  bonded by hydrogen.
• The base can be
• A. Adenine- 2 ring structure
• B. Thymine- 1 ring structure
• C. Guanine- 2 ring structure
• D. Cytosine- 1 ring structure
• A---T
• C---G
• This is called complementary bases.
• The combination of GACT would always bond with
  CTGA
• D.N.A is a double helix
• D.N.A may be composed of billions of prs. of
  bases
• D.N.A is found wound around complex proteins to
  form chromatins.
• D.N.A is the identity of a person.

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Genetic Code
What is Genetic Code? 1. It is universal. 2.
Its made up of base triplet. 3. The common
bases 4. Genetic codes are read like a
sentence. 5. Definition The Information for
synthesizing proteins that is encoded in the DNA
sequence. 6. The genetic code plays an important
role in protein synthesis, messenger RNA, and
extremely precise and specific.
Base triplet- codon
C,G,A,T, U (RNA)
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Applications

• Protein Synthesis
• mRNA carries the information for making a
  protein.
• The building blocks of proteins is amino
  acids.
• The amino acids must align in the correct
  sequence.

• Viruses
• Virus injects an RNA into the host cell and
  produces proteins of the virus.

• RNA
• 64 different possibilities of codons.
• Contain an anticodon- end of the sequence that
  is only found in RNA strands.

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DNA Molecules! By
Melissa Atkins
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What is DNA?

• DNA is not a single molecule, but instead
  consists of a pair of molecules joined by
  hydrogen bonds. This is called a double helix.
• The strands are made of nucleotides, which are
  adenine (A), thymine (T), uracil (U) which is
  rarely found in DNA, guanine (G), and cytosine
  (C). They are also known as bases. These bases
  are attached to the carbon on one side of the
  sugar that the body will need.
• The nucleotides usually pair up by complementary
  pairing. For instance, A bonds with T, G bonds
  with C, and vice versa. A cannot bond with C or
  G, nor can G bond with A or T.
• DNA molecules can duplicate themselves. This is
  called replication, During this process, the two
  halves of the helix separate and a new partner is
  created to match each half exactly.

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• The base-sugar unit is called a nucleoside. A
  phosphoric acid unit is attached to the other
  side of the sugar, linking the nucleoside to the
  neighboring sugar. Together, the phosphoric acid
  unit made up of bases and sugar is called a
  nucleotide. (You know what those are )

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DNA Replication

• By Yadira Kawaguchi

DNA has to be replicated in order for the cell to
synthesize the proteins necessary to build
cellular parts and carry on metabolism. DNA
Replication occurs during Interphase of the Cell
Cycle.
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Steps

• Hydrogen bonds break between the complimentary
  base pairs (which are A-T and C-G).
• The double-stranded structure unwinds and pulls
  apart exposing the unpaired nucleotide bases.
• New nucleotides are paired up with the exposed
  nucleotides. (They form hydrogen bonds)
• DNA Polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the
  bonds.
• Enzymes knit together the new sugar-phosphate
  backbone.
• From 1 strand you result with 2 strands. 1 one
  old one and 1 new one.

http//www.ncc.gmu.edu/dna/repanim.htm
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Transcription
is the transfer of genetic information from DNA
into RNA.
abby long
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• Transcription happens in the cell nucleus where
  the DNA is because the DNA cannot leave the
  nucleus. (The RNA is produced in the nucleolus.)
• Think of DNA as instructions to build a bicycle
  but they are written in Japanese. The RNA
  polymerase will come in and change the
  instructions to an understandable language.
• The DNA is unzipped and the RNA polymerase (an
  enzyme) moves along one half of the DNA and
  starts the synthesis of an mRNA.
• RNA does not contain thymine but instead it
  contains uracil which binds to adenine.
• The RNA polymerase comes to the end of the DNA,
  the mRNA is released.
• The DNA winds back up and closes.
• The new mRNA then passes through a pore in the
  nuclear envelope and into the cytoplasm.

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Overview of Protein Synthesis

• Protein Synthesis as a whole, is transcription
  and translation working together.
• In order for translation to happen, transcription
  has to happen first.
• When transcription happens, it creates a mRNA
  which then leaves the nucleus and enters a
  ribosome.
• When the mRNA successfully enters the ribosome,
  the final step of protein synthesis occurs,
  translation.
• After translation has successfully occurred, it
  has created a polypeptide chain, which is a
  protein that will then go where it is needed to
  help another cell form and develop according to
  what is needs to be. ( EX. A liver cell or a skin
  cell)

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(No Transcript)
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Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

• A procedure that borrows a cells machinery for
  DNA replication
• Allows researchers to make many copies of a gene
• Uses a target DNA, two types of short DNA pieces
  called primers, a polymerase DNA, and enzymes
  that replicate DNA
• Steps of PCR
• Heat is used to separate two strands of target
  DNA
• Temp is lowered, 2 DNA primers are added by
  complementary base pairing to target strands
• DNA polymerase bases are added to build
  sequence similar to target sequence
• New synthesized strands act as templates for
  next round of replication which repeats itself.
• www.dnalc.org/ddnalc/resources/pcr.html

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The steps of PCR are completed using an
automated device called a thermal cycler that
controls key temp. changes Strengths it is used
to work on crucial samples of rare and short
DNA sequences Weaknesses super sensitive to
fine detail which could lead to a false
positive result it is limited in that user
must know sequence to be amplified can lead
to mutations