Cultural Factors in the Libraries of Developing Countries: Problems We Face

1
Cultural Factors in the Libraries of Developing
Countries Problems We Face

• Steven Casano, Jay Kelley, Diane Todd,
• Lisa Nguyen, Amber Collins
• Dr. R. Knuth
• International Librarianship
• April 24, 2003

2

• There are many cultural factors which affect
  librarianship in developing countries around the
  world. Our goal is to not only educate the
  conference attendees about these subjects, but
  also to start a dialogue for change.

3
Presentations

• Diploma Disease..Steven Casano
• The Lack of Reading Habits...Jay Kelley
• Literacy in Developing CountriesDiane Todd
• Oral Traditional Cultures.....Amber Collins
• Colonial Traditions Images.Lisa Nguyen

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Diploma Disease

• Steven Casano
• LIS 701
• April 24, 2003

5
Education, Diploma Disease, Self-Actualization

• It is fairly common in academic circles to
  believe that learning, knowing, understanding,
  and thinking civilize a society that
  education, the cultivation of human minds and
  spirits, is the foundation of a good and
  economically productive society and that the
  improvement of education is a means to a better
  society.
• Diploma Disease is evident in systems of
  education that highlight the tension between the
  importance of learning to do a job and learning
  to get a job. As schooling expands faster than
  formal sector employment, so the pressure to get
  a qualification becomes over-powering and
  students get sucked into the chase for
  credentials. Selection comes to dominate over
  preparation.

6
Self-Actualizing Activity

• Abraham Maslow, the world-renowned psychologist,
  has expressed the difference between
  self-actualizing activity and activity which
  merely fulfills lower level deficiency needs
  (e.g., qualification inflation).
• At the highest level, the individual achieves
  self-actualization, which means maximizing ones
  potential, to become everything that one is
  capable of becoming.
• In self-actualizing activity, gratification
  breeds increased rather than decreased
  motivation, heightened rather than lessened
  excitement, and the appetite for knowledge
  becomes intensified. They grow upon themselves
  and instead of wanting less and less, such a
  person wants more and more of, for example,
  education.

7
Deficiency-Motivated Activity

• In deficiency-motivated activity, the individual
  cannot be said to be governing themselves, or in
  control of their own fatethey must adapt and
  adjust by being flexible and responsive and by
  changing themselves to fit the external
  situation. The need (e.g., for a certificate) can
  only be satisfied from the outside.

8
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

• Self-actualization needs
• Esteem needs
• Social needs
• Safety needs
• Physiological needs

9
Diploma Disease

• Unfortunately, not all schooling is education
  much of it is mere qualification earning.
  According to R.P. Dore, in Britain as in India,
  in Russia as in Venezuela, schooling is more
  often qualification-earning schooling than it was
  in 1920, or even 1950 (Dore 1976)
• In the process of qualification the pupil is
  concerned not with mastery, but with being
  certified as having mastered. The knowledge that
  one gains is not necessarily for ones
  edification, but rather for the purpose of
  reproducing information for examinations. The
  learning process is just a means to an end the
  end being getting a certificate or degree which
  is a passport to a coveted job, status, or income
  level (Dore 1976).

10
Diploma Disease

• For example, in some African countries, exams at
  the end of the sixth year of schooling determine
  who will and who will not have a chance of
  secondary education. In essence, from the third
  year on of schooling studies are geared towards
  passing these exams.
• In such an anxiety-ridden atmosphere the need to
  qualify effectively destroys the desire of the
  student to truly learn outside the confines of
  the upcoming examination.

11
Developing Countries

• According to Dore, developing countries feel the
  need to catch up by importing knowledge and
  skills in formal education packages. However,
  the more widely education certificates are used
  for occupational selection, the faster the rate
  of qualification inflation, and the more
  examination-oriented schooling becomes at the
  expense of genuine education. Qualification
  inflation results from a faster growth of the
  school system than the number of job
  opportunities (Dore 1976).

12
Cultural Considerations

• In developing countries the birth of a school
  system and the development of a
  qualification-based occupational system are
  likely to be simultaneous. The very concept of
  school and of formal education may have entered
  the society through imperialistic powers as part
  of a package of becoming modernized.
• The gap between the culture of the school and the
  culture of the home may be more pronounced i.e.,
  the knowledge and attitude of what is being
  taught is quite remote from everyday life.
• The more remote school work is from daily
  experiences, the more easily it becomes a mere
  ritual, a means of getting certificates.

13
Cultural Considerations

• The more consciously children are sent to school
  to get certificates the greater the demand for
  schooling for that purpose. The greater the
  number of primary schools geared up to prepare
  children for entry into secondary schools, the
  tougher the competition and schools and
  teachers performance is measured by their
  secondary entrance results.
• The greater the teachers emphasis on teaching
  for the examination, sticking to the syllabus,
  concentrating on learning to remember rather than
  to understand is demonstrating the concept that
  exam results are the be-all and end-all of
  schooling. Consequently, the more the
  qualification-orientation of the children and
  their parents is reinforced, those tendencies in
  teachers are in turn also reinforced.

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Dores Argument

• Dore's argument is that national systems of
  education highlight the tension between the
  importance of learning to do a job and learning
  to get a job. As schooling typically expands
  faster than formal sector employment, so the
  pressure to get a qualification becomes
  over-powering and students get sucked into the
  chase for credentials. Selection comes to
  dominate over preparation (McGrath 1998).

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Dores Argument

• This argument is particularly pertinent for
  developed countries in the late 1990s due to two
  key trends in current educational and economic
  discourses.
•  1) the rise of competency-based education and
  training seems to point to a new escalation in
  credentialism in the developed countries as more
  and more certificates are awarded ever more
  frequently.
•  2) the recent debates about Post-Fordism are
  rooted in a belief that the mass production
  paradigm is being replaced by a new system in
  which even learning-to-do is insufficient.
  (McGrath 1998).

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Dores Argument

• Much of our understanding of the relationship
  between education and development is predicated
  on work such as Dore's, which assumes that both
  formal education and formal employment will
  continue to grow over time. Today, however,
  employment in the formal sector is actually
  contracting in several countries. At the same
  time, evidence, though still often simply
  anecdotal, is emerging about stagnation and even
  decline in enrollments. It is Africa where these
  trends seem strongest. While the attractiveness
  of schooling seems to be under severe
  questioning, an apparent explosion in
  credentialism is taking place in Africa. This is
  in the search for vocational qualifications and
  is reflected in an exponential growth of private
  providers of training (McGrath 1998).

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Questions for Reflection

• Do you feel diploma disease is apparent in the
  American educational system or the educational
  system of your home country? Have you personally
  felt the effects of diploma disease?
• What is your definition of an educated individual?

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Additional Resources

• Dore, Ronald. 1976. The Almighty Certificate.
  Times Educational Supplement (London) September
  17 3198.
•  
• Dore, Ronald. 1976. The Diploma Disease.
  Education, Qualification and Development.
  Berkeley University of California Press.
•  
• Dore, R. P.1997. Reflections on the Diploma
  Disease Twenty Years Later. Assessment in
  Education Principles, Policy, and Practice 4
  no. 1189 218.
•   
• Lee, Yumi and Peter Ninnes. 1995. A Multilevel
  Global and Cultural Critique of the "Diploma
  Disease". Comparative Education Review 39, no. 2
  169-77.
•  
• Little, Angela W and Jasbir Sarjit Singh. 1992.
  Learning and Working Elements of the Diploma
  Disease Thesis Examined in England and Malaysia.
  Comparative Education 28, no. 2 181-200.
•  
•  McGrath, Simon. 1998. Special Issue The Diploma
  Disease Twenty Years On (book reviews). Journal
  of Development Studies 34, no.3 144.
•  

19
The Lack of Reading Habits As related to the
developing countries of the world.

• Jay Kelley
• LIS 701
• April 24, 2003

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Introduction

• This presentation deals not with illiteracy but
  with the lack of reading habits. It is concerned
  not with those who cannot read but with those who
  can but do not or do not do so enough.

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Topics of Discussion

• Factors limiting the the reading habit.
• Ways of promoting the reading habit.
• Some specific examples of promoting the reading
  habit.

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Factors limiting reading habit

• Two major factors are evident
• Many people lack an interest in reading.
• Many who are interested lack access to books and
  print resources.

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Lack of interest

• The culture of many developing countries is based
  on oral and visual communication not verbal.
• Talking, storytelling, drama and drawing are
  common ways to communicate.
• Written language, however, is not a common way to
  convey thought.

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Lack of interest

• The lure of electronic media, especially
  television, can often have an adverse effect on
  the ones reading habits.

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Lack of access

• Book shortages mean few textbooks and little
  selection in home or local libraries.
• Many developing countries have yet to establish
  indigenous publishers and book markets.

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Lack of access

• A lack of educated librarians and reading
  teachers means little guidance to those who
  desire to progress.
• Rural segments of the population must often
  travel far to reach centers of literacy.

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Ways of promoting the reading habit

• The role of the family
• Libraries and librarians
• Mass media
• Government

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Families

• Parents can play a big role in inspiring their
  children to read
• Home libraries
• Reading aloud
• Family visits to the library

29
Libraries

• Local libraries can offer programs to encourage
  reading
• Librarians can offer guidance to individuals in
  their reading habits

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Mass media

• Television programs, movies, music, magazines and
  newspapers can all play a positive role in
  encouraging reading.
• Famous writers or books can be given national
  attention and thus encourage reading.

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Government

• The government is able to sponsor programs and
  support public means for persons to acquire and
  use printed matter.

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Some specific examples

• Book flood
• Donated book programs
• Independent reading programs
• Book publishing associations

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Book flood

• The purpose of this is to immerse children in a
  flood of high-interest illustrated storybooks in
  the target language.
• Singapore
• Fiji

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Donated book programs

• Book Aid International based in the UK ships over
  700,000 books per year to libraries in developing
  countries around the world.

35
Independent reading programs

• Banco del Libro and the National Reading Plan of
  Venezuela.

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Book publishing associations

• Kenyas Childrens Literature Association and the
  Council for the Promotion of Science Publications
  for Children in Africa.
• These groups work toward establishing indigenous
  publishing industries and book markets.

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International groups

• The International Reading Association
• UNESCO

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Additional Resources

• Barton, David, ed. Sustaining Local Literacies.
  Bristol, PA Multilingual Matters Ltd, 1994.
• Greaney, Vincent, ed. Promoting Reading in
  Developing Countries. Newark, Del International
  Reading Association, 1996.
• Gustafsson, Uwe. Can Literacy Lead to
  Development? A publication of the Summer
  Institute of Linguistics and the University of
  Texas at Arlington, 1991.
• Jeffries, Sir Charles. Illiteracy A World
  Problem. New York Praeger, 1967.
• Sangkaeo, Somsong. Reading habit promotion in
  ASEAN libraries. A paper presented at the 65th
  IFLA Council and General Conference in Bangkok,
  Thailand, Aug 20-28, 1999
• Walker, Richard et al. Teaching All the Children
  to Read Concentrated Language Encounter
  Techniques. Buckingham, PA Open University
  Press, 1992.
• International Reading Association Home Page
  www.reading.org

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Literacy in Developing Countries

• Diane Todd
• LIS 701
• April 24, 2003

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Universal Declaration of Human Rights

• Article 26(1) Everyone has the right to
  education. Education shall be free, at least in
  the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary
  education shall be compulsory. Technical and
  professional education shall be made generally
  available and higher education shall be equally
  available to all on the basis of merit.
• ---Adopted by the United Nations General
  Assembly on December 10, 1948.

41
Overview

• Definition of Literacy
• Literacy Statistics
• Literacy Poverty
• Literacy Society
• Literacy Politics
• Literacy Programs
• Resources

42
Definition of Literacy

• A person is literate who can with understanding
  both read and write a short simple statement on
  his/her everyday life.
• A person is illiterate who cannot with
  understanding both read and write a short simple
  statement on his/her everyday life.
• ---UNESCOs current definition of literacy.

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Literacy Statistics

• Currently, there are 862 million non-literate
  adults in the world.
• Two-thirds of these non-literates are women.
• 98 percent of all non-literates live in
  developing countries.
• In the least developed countries, the overall
  illiteracy rate is 49 percent.

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Literacy Poverty

• Statistics confirm that there is a direct
  correlation between income and illiteracy.
• For poverty-stricken non-literates, survival
  supersedes literacy.
• Studies prove that literacy can lead to increased
  income.
• The economic returns are greater than the cost of
  the education itself.

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Literacy Society

• Approximately 50 percent of all non-literates are
  minority language speakers.
• Gender discrimination impacts millions of females
  who are non-literate.
• Studies show that there is a relationship between
  literacy and lower fertility, lower infant
  mortality, and higher nutrition.

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Literacy Politics

• Political upheaval can have a negative effect on
  literacy.
• Political will is necessary to mobilize literacy
  programs and campaigns.
• Governments utilize literacy to achieve political
  goals.

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Literacy Programs

• Young Girls and Womens Literacy Through Basic
  Skills Education Seti Project, Nepal
• Enriching Basic Literacy InstructionTok Ples,
  Papua New Guinea
• Nonformal Distance Education The Gobi Womens
  Project, Mongolia

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Additional Resources

• Intl. Reading Association www.reading.org
• Literacy Online www.literacy.org
• Intl. Literacy Explorer www.literacyonline.org
• UNESCO www.unesco.org
• SIL Intl. www.sil.org/literacy
• Intl. Literacy Network www.theiln.org

52
Additional Resources

• Bhola, H.S. Source Book for Literacy Work
  Perspective from the Grassroots. Paris UNESCO
  Publishing, 1994.
• Brian V. Street, ed. Cross-Cultural Approaches to
  Literacy. Cambridge Cambridge University Press,
  1993.
• Compendium of Statistics on Illiteracy. Paris
  UNESCO Publishing, 1990.
• Morsy, Zaghloul. Challenge of Illiteracy From
  Reflection to Action. New York Garland
  Publishers, 1994.

53
Oral Traditional Cultures Libraries

• Amber Collins
• LIS 701
• April 24, 2003

54
Key issues

• 1) The shift from a society based on oral
  communications memory to that of the written
  word and all the fears and problems that
  accompany that.
• 2) The matter of preserving the cultural
  traditions that ARE passed along orally.

55
Just what is oral tradition?

• Passed though.
• Poetry
• Narrative
• Ritual Incantation
• Praise
• Festive / Folk songs
• Wisecracks, tongue-twisters, riddles
• Proverbs
• Folk Songs
• Talks / Tales

• Oral Tradition the oral testimony transmitted
  from one generation to the next or more, thus the
  teller is neither a participant nor an
  eye-witness
•  Oral History the personal account of events
  that took place in relatively recent times, i.e.
  the persons lifetime.

56
The shift

• This is a society that has relied entirely on
  oral communications in order to pass on
  information regarding the history, laws, and
  customs of a culture, as well as genealogies
  dynastic chronologies.
• There is a strong reliance on the group and the
  collective memory.
• Emphasis is on rote memorization and informal
  learning rather than creativity and understanding.

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People act with

• Indifference to both the written word libraries
  
• Suspicion
• Antagonism
• See it as a disruptive force dividing the group
• Or a potential threat to status putting power
  into the hands of those that can read

58
Reading is seen as

• A chore
• Its still so closely associated with formal
  education, that reading for fun or enjoyment is
  not a thought that is widely disseminated.
• Barking at the page is very prevalent
• While they can read the words on the page, or
  recite them from memory, the words themselves
  have none or very little meaning

59
Should we as librarians ignore the oral
traditions?

• Amadi said that a strong oral tradition should
  not be considered problematic instead
  librarians should view it as excellent raw
  material for a systematic, professional,
  dynamic process of information packaging and
  retrieval.

60
How do we save the oral tradition?

• Amadi feels that a new barefoot librarian needs
  to be created. He is a conventionally trained
  professional, with if need be, adequate formal
  instruction in oral tradition and well able to
  manipulate photographic/recording gadgets, who
  goes out to targeted locations in the rural areas
  to take oral evidence from these repositories of
  traditional information.

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Problems with collecting disseminating

• Often individuals make the tape recordings
• No published list/guide of holdings

Solutions

• Legislation researchers must deposit copies of
  their recordings with translations in the
  National Archives
• Thus one depository one union catalog

62
Solutions

• Modify the concept of traditional Western
  libraries
• Create Oral Libraries
• Adoption of visual and verbal communications for
  presenting information
• Preserve the cultural heritage both in audio
  visual
• Greater emphasis on the vernacular books based
  on situations familiar to the people

63

• Iwuji believes that in order for public libraries
  to survive in Africa it must become an
  integrated civic centre, with a conventional
  library service--bibliographic serviceforming
  only a part of the package, which should include
  indoor outdoor recreational activities,
  exhibition and audio-visual centres, etc.

64
Additional Resources

• Aleybeleye, B. Oral Archives in Africa Their
  Nature, Value, Accessibility. Intl Lib Rev.
  17(4), Oct 1985. 419-24.
• Alemna, A.A. Towards a New Emphasis on Oral
  Tradition as an Information Source in African
  Libraries. J. Documentation. 48(4), Dec 1992.
  422-9.
• Anuar, Hedwig. The Library Information
  Dimensions of the North-South Dialogue Some
  Thoughts on the Threshold of the 21st Century.
  IFLA J. 13(4), 1987. 327-33.
• Iwuji, H.O.M. Librarianship Oral Tradition in
  Africa. Intl Lib Rev. 22(1), Mar 1990. 53-9.

65
Additional Resources

• John, Magnus. Librarianship in Oral Traditional
  Societies. Intl Lib Rev. 11(3), Jul 1979.
  321-39.
• John, Magnus. The Language of Formal Education
  the Role of Libraries in Oral-Traditional
  Societies. Intl Lib Rev. 16(4), Oct 1984,
  393-406.
• Mabawonku, Iyabo. The Collection of Oral
  Traditions. Intl Lib Rev. 12(1), Jan 1980. 71-7.
• Nwakoby, M.A. Special Curricular Themes for
  Library Education in Nigeria. Intl Lib Rev.
  22(4), Dec 1990. 213-24.
• Weitzel, Rolf. Literature Awareness Among Health
  Staff in Developing Countries. Intl Info Lib
  Rev. 24(3), Sep 1992. 203-12.

66
Colonial Traditions Images

• Lisa Nguyen
• LIS 701
• April 24, 2003

67
What is colonialism?

• Colonialism is a political-economic phenomenon
  whereby various European nations explored,
  conquered, settled, and exploited large areas of
  the world.

68
Historical Backdrop

• The age of modern colonialism began about 1500,
  following the European discoveries of a sea route
  around Africa's southern coast (1488) and of
  America (1492). With these events sea power
  shifted from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic
  and to the emerging nation-states of Portugal,
  Spain, the Dutch Republic, France, and England.
  By discovery, conquest, and settlement, these
  nations expanded and colonized throughout the
  world, spreading European institutions and
  culture.

69
Topics for Discussion

• What determined the purpose and type of library
  established in colonial regions?
• Why were they established?
• What type of libraries were established?
• What type of attitudes of the colonial
  administrators towards library development?

70
Map of Colonized Regions
71
Colonial Powers

• Great Britain
• France
• The Netherlands
• Germany
• Portugal
• United States
• Japan

72
European Powers in Africa and Southeast Asia
73
European Powers in Africa and Southeast Asia
74
European Colonialism in Africa
75
Colonial Languages
76
Colonialism Libraries in Africa

• (Ochai 1984)
• Indigenous educated class in Africa hardly
  existed. European powers feared and distrusted a
  few educated Africans and would not provide
  libraries for their intellectual development as
  this was considered inimical to the continued
  existence of the colonial system.

77
Colonialism Libraries in Africa

• (Ochai 1984)
• Libraries, especially the public library, are
  regarded as an instrument for public education.
  But the type of education that would expose
  Africans to different political ideas was to be
  discouraged as it was felt exposure to the books
  would expose Africans to the nakedness of
  colonial exploitation.
• Libraries are instruments of power with all the
  explosive thoughts of mankind. Those in the seat
  of power have always understood it.

78
Colonialism Libraries in Africa

• (Cram 1993)
• The book, reading, libraries, and formal
  education were introduced into Africa by the
  colonizeras a tool for Christianising the
  heathens and teaching them the way to salvation
  as a means for educating the target people in
  order to achieve the social, political, and
  economic objectives of the colony and to
  acculturate the natives into European ways.

79
Colonialism Libraries in Africa

• (Cram 1993)Both libraries and education
  institutions because weapons for the
  entrenchment and institutionalization of the
  Western traditions. The dissemination of African
  culture, where this happened at all, become quite
  incidental and marginal to the primary intention
  of using these so-called democratic
  institutions as laboratories for brainwashing
  Africans.

80
Libraries as Agents of Economic Exploitation

• (Ochai, 1984)
• Libraries were accidental by-products of the
  economic, social and political forces.
• In every colony the first priority were
  communication, transport and medical care.
  Railroads were built (and one might add
  libraries) wherever economically feasible to
  promote agricultural or mineral exports.
• Missionaries and individuals, rather than
  colonial governments, were responsible for the
  emergence of libraries.

81
Libraries as Agents of Economic Exploitation

• The biggest determinant of library development in
  colonized regions is the European country that
  colonized the areaa situation dictated by the
  characters of their rule.
• Anglophone countries have the best library
  development.
• Francophone countries have fewer libraries.
• Portuguese countries almost have none.

82
Libraries as Agents of Economic Exploitation

• (Ochai 1994)
• In the case of Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda,
  and Kenya, numerous special libraries were
  established to support agricultural and mineral
  exploitation.
• In Africathe pattern of library growth
  shows a progression from what one might call
  bread and butter libraries, that is, from
  libraries indispensable for the program exercise
  of the functions of a state (the colonial
  government) and for the work of industry, trade
  and the professional classes through libraries of
  institutions for higher learning to finally,
  public libraries. One striking feature in Africa
  (we exclude the Republic of South Africa) is the
  preponderance of special, university and college
  libraries and the meagerness of the public
  library provision.

83
Libraries as Instruments for Cultural Diffusion

• (Ochai 1984) Colonization will not be mortal
  if it ceases to be simply domination, simply
  exploitationbut extends into culture, into
  influence, into educationIn the colonization is
  a humanistic endeavor, a profound solidarity
  between two associated peoples.

84
Higher Education

• (Ochai 1984)
• The reasons for the long neglect of higher
  education (and hence the library) in African can
  been seen in the words of Lord Lugard, the
  architect of the British colonial
  administrations policy on colonial territories.
• the object of education in African must have in
  view must be to fit the ordinary individual to
  fill a useful part in his environmentand not to
  its detriment or to the subversion of constituted
  authority.

85
Literacy

• (Cram 1993)
• It was both attractive and acceptable to
  Africans that literacy should become a new basis
  for the delegation of authority, social power,
  and wealth. The notion that, for the first time,
  an able-bodied young man could offer his manual
  labor to construct a railway, or for similar
  chores, in return for money was revolutionary as
  it was acceptable and fully embraced as a viable
  system of social stratification. Literacy gave
  access to the three desirable Msmansions,
  Mercedes and Mistresses. The sudden shift from
  the world of roles to one of jobs was deemed both
  proper and an attribute of higher civilization.

86
European Colonialism in Southeast Asia
87
Southeast Asia

• Burma
• Indonesia
• Indochina
• Philippines
• Singapore

88
Summation

• A concept of librarianship modeled on the
  metropolitan colonial power or on that of the
  aid-giving foreign country.
• Libraries as agents of economic exploitation,
  political education and cultural diffusion.
• A small number of public libraries, mainly in
  urban centers.
• Librarians in colonial period were mainly
  expatriates.
• Some academic libraries in the University and
  other training institutions.
• A very small number of school libraries.

89
Additional Resources

• Macmillen, Alexander D.S."Colonialism and the
  Development of Libraries and Archives in French
  Indochina."Information Libraries in the
  Developing World. 2, 1993. 65-79.
• Ochai, Adakole."The Purpose of the Library in
  Colonial Tropical Africa An Historical Survey."
  Intl Lib Rev. 16(3), July 1984.
• 309-15.
• Odi, Amusi. "The Colonial Origins of Library
  Development in Africa Some Reflections on Their
  Significance." Libraries and Culture. 26(4), Fall
  1991. 594-604.
• Ogundipe, O.O. "The Colonial Contribution to
  Librarianship in Developing Countries Some
  Negative Aspects." Focus on Intl Comp
  Librarianship. 29(3), Dec 1998. 153-7.
• Yocklunn, John. The History of Libraries from
  the Colonial Period of a Country to
  Independence. In Annual Conference of the
  International Federation of Library Associations
  Proceedings, IFLA Annual Conference Held in
  Manila, Philippines, 18-23 August 1980.

90
Questions

• For more information on any of the topics
  presented contact
• Steven Casano. Diploma Disease
• casanosteve_at_hotmail.com
• Jay Kelley....The Lack of Reading Habits
• kelleyj_at_hawaii.edu
• Diane Todd..Literacy in Developing Countries
• dianetodd_at_hawaii.rr.com
• Amber Collins.......Oral Traditional
  Cultures
• embercollins_at_hotmail.com
• Lisa Nguyen..Colonial Traditions Images
• tpnguyen_at_hawaii.edu