Expertise

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Expertise

• These are individuals who have strongly trained
  abilities
• They build up a wealth of knowledge that allows
  them to skip steps that non-experts cannot
• e.g., psychologists with patient diagnoses,
  x-ray technicians, chess players, typists

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Expertise

• Overall performance is not a sum of the
  constituent parts
• the overall expert ability exhibits fewer
  declines than the component processes
• encapsulation

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Practical Intelligence

• tasks are based on performance in real-life
  situations

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Practical Intelligence

• with this type of intelligence, the declines
  might appear later (70-75 years), but they are
  apparent

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Problem Solving

• Involves the application of our intellectual
  abilities to solve problems
• Dennys model
• Unexercised abilities
• Exercised abilities

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Problem Solving

• Cornelius Caspi Camp and colleagues
• older adults produced continued to produce more
  responses than younger adults on multiple choice
• critical analysis?

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Problem Solving

• the quality of the younger, older, and
  middle-aged responses were the same
• older adults may consider fewer alternative
  before responding

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Piaget and Formal Thought

• Formal thought
• people can think abstractly, systematically, and
  logically
• they can derive and test hypotheses about reality

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Piaget and Formal Thought

• Postformal thought
• ability to deal with uncertainty, inconsistency,
  contradiction, imperfection, and compromise

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Building on post formal thought Labouvie-Vief
proposed

• Intrasystemic
• formal operations
• adhere to one form of thought
• Intersystemic
• become aware of multiple perspectives
• can tolerate conflict

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Labouvie-Vief

• Integrated
• openness, flexibility, autonomous reflection
• change and diversity are positive
• truth is no longer absolute

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Sinnots Criteria for Postformal Thought

• How can we tell when people are using postformal
  thought?
• Shifting gears
• between abstract and practical situations
• multiple causality/multple solutions
• awareness of more than one cause and solution

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Sinnots Criteria

• pragmatism
• ability to choose among alternatives
• awareness of paradox
• awareness that a solution may provide no
  permanent resolution

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Wisdom

• Erikson
• a virtue that develops from resolving the
  integrity vs. despair conflict
• provides insight into lifes meaning
• not all attain this level

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Wisdom

• Robert Sternberg, Paul Baltes
• Definition of Wisdom
• Expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of
  life

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Wisdom

• Baltes argues that there are several key
  characteristics that promote the development of
  wisdom, and old age is necessary but not
  sufficient

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Key Characteristics

• older age
• open personality
• extensive training
• well structured experience
• good mentorship in matters of life

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Wisdom

• Smith, Staudinger, Baltes (1994)
• Examined wisdom related knowledge in younger and
  older clinical psychologists, as well as younger
  and older control professionals
• Wisdom is derived from five criteria

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Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

• Procedure
• People were asked a series of questions about
  moral dilemmas.
• Conclusion
• Three levels of moral development
• two stages at each level

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Kohlberg's Preconventional LevelNo
Internalization

• Stage 1 Heteronomous morality
• Individuals pursue their own interests but let
  others do the same.
• What is right involves equal exchange.
• Stage 2 Individual, purpose, and exchange
• Children only obey because adults tell them to
  obey.
• Moral decisions are based on fear of punishment.

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Kohlberg's Conventional LevelIntermediate
Internalization

• Stage 3 Multiple interpersonal expectations,
  relationships, and interpersonal conformity
• Individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to
  others as a basis for moral judgments.
• Stage 4 Social system morality
• Moral judgments are based on understanding and
  the social order, law, justice, and duty.

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Kohlberg's Postconventional LevelFull
Internalization

• Stage 5 Social contract or utility and
  individual rights
• Individuals reason that values, rights, and
  principles transcend the law.
• Stage 6 Universal ethical principles
• Moral judgments are based on universal human
  rights.

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Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

• Most adolescents are at stage 3 or 4.
• Few people reach stage 6.
• Parents contribute little to childrens moral
  thinking because parent-child relationships are
  often too power-oriented.

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Evaluating Kohlberg's Theory

• Moral reasoning does not necessarily mean moral
  behaviour.
• Kohlbergs theory does not adequately reflect
  interpersonal relationships and concern for
  others.

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Kohlberg's StagesExplained Illustrated

• The Heinz DilemmaScenario 1 A woman was near
  death from a unique kind of cancer. There is a
  drug that might save her. The drug costs 4,000
  per dosage. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went
  to everyone he knew to borrow the money and tried
  every legal means, but he could only get together
  about 2,000. He asked the doctor scientist who
  discovered the drug for a discount or let him pay
  later. But the doctor scientist refused.Should
  Heinz break into the laboratory to steal the drug
  for his wife? Why or why not?

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• Scenario 2 Heinz broke into the laboratory and
  stole the drug. The next day, the newspapers
  reported the break-in and theft. Brown, a police
  officer and a friend of Heinz remembered seeing
  Heinz last evening, behaving suspiciously near
  the laboratory. Later that night, he saw Heinz
  running away from the laboratory.Should Brown
  report what he saw? Why or why not?

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• Scenario 3 Officer Brown reported what he saw.
  Heinz was arrested and brought to court. If
  convicted, he faces up to two years' jail. Heinz
  was found guilty.Should the judge sentence
  Heinz to prison? Why or why not?

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• Stages of Moral ReasoningFrom his research, he
  identified six stages of reasoning at three
  levels.

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• Movement through the StagesKohlberg's theory of
  moral reasoning is a stage theory.
• In stage development, movement is effected when
  cognitive dissonance occurs ... that is when a
  person notices inadequacies in his or her present
  way of coping with a given moral dilemma