To understand where we are and to help predict where we are going, it is useful to review where we h

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To understand where we are and to help predict
where we are going, it is useful to review where
we have been.
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Charles Augustin Coulomb
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Macquorn Rankine
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EVOLUTION

• Prior to 1940 - Karl Terzaghi
• After World War II Political and societal
  demands for New structures and
  facilities Protection and enhancement of
  environment New resources Mitigation of natural
  disaster risks

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SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
EDUCATION IN 1949

• Scope of field limited mainly to
• Soil Classification
• Capillarity and seepage
• Stress analysis by elasticity
• Consolidation and settlement analysis
• Shear strength
• Slope stability
• Lateral pressures
• Bearing capacity
• Shallow and deep foundations
• Emphasis largely on saturated clays and sands

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DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1950 - 1960

• Slope stability
• Shear strength
• Soil structure, causes of clay sensitivity
• Compacted clay properties
• Pavement design
• Soil stabilization
• Transient loading

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Slope Failure in Sweden
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Effect of Disturbance on a Quick Clay
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Undisturbed Quick Clay from Drammen, Norway Width
20mm
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Heavy Rubber-Tired Roller
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DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1960-1970

• Pore pressure, effective stress analysis
• Physico-chemical phenomena
• Rock Mechanics
• Computer applications
• Finite element analyses
• Soil-structure interaction
• Soil dynamics
• Liquefaction
• Earth and rockfill dams
• Offshore, cold region, lunar projects

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Malpasset Dam Failure
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Port Allen Lock
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Mobile Caisson for Arctic Exploration
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Apollo 17 Landing Site
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DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1970-1980

• Constitutive modeling
• In-situ testing
• Expansive soils
• Soil dynamics
• Centrifuge testing
• Partly saturated soils
• Geotechnical earthquake engineering
• Underground construction

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Constitutive Modeling
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CPT Truck
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Expansive Soil
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Lower San Fernando Dam Failure, 1971
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Eisenhower Tunnel Construction, I-70
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DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1980-1990

• Risk and reliability
• Groundwater and geohydrology
• Geoenvironmental engineering
• Geosynthetics
• Earth reinforcement
• Ground improvement

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Groundwater Contamination
Industrial wastes have been disposed in many ways
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Placement of a Geomembrane
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Reinforced Earth Wall, Valdez, Alaska
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Deep Dynamic Compaction
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DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1990-2000

• Waste containment
• Site remediation
• Seismic risk mitigation
• Land reclamation
• Infrastructure
• Geophysical applications
• Geographic information systems

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Rumpke MSW Landfill Failure 12.5 ha 36 m
headscarp Max. waste depth of 110 m Toe moved
300 m in 5 minutes Pre-failure slope of 2.61
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Downstream Treatment at Mormon Island Dam
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I-15 / I-80 East / SR-201 Junction
(Artist's Rendition) Salt Lake City
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MOST SIGNIFICANT RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS FROM 1950
2000 IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

• Critical state soil mechanics
• Small strain and non-linear stiffness
• Effective stress triaxial testing
• Numerical analysis
• Centrifuge modeling
• Effects of structure and fabric
• Residual strength in OC soil
• Partially saturated soils
• Effective stress analysis of slopes and retaining
  structures
• Field measurements at the BRE

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SITUATION AT THE BEGINNING OF THE NEW MILLENNIUM
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SCOPE OF GEOTECHNOLOGY

• Geotechnical engineering
• Geology and engineering geology
• Geophysics
• Geochemistry
• Geohydrology
• Seismology
• Civil engineering
• Mining and mineral engineering
• Petroleum engineering
• Information science and technology

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PROJECTS AND PROBLEMS

• Foundations for structures of all types
• Transportation infrastructure (roads, airfields,
  rail, ports and harbors, underground)
• Land reclamation
• Seismic safety mitigation of seismic risk
• Resource recovery
• Energy
• Preservation and restoration of old structures

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TOWER OF PISA IN 1957 (Speakers green automobile
for scale)
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PROJECTS AND PROBLEMS (cont.)

• Waste disposal and containment
• Site remediation and environmental enhancement
• Soil and rock as construction materials
• Deep Ocean, Cold Regions, Space
• Natural hazard protection and risk reduction
  (landslides, tornadoes, hurricanes, tsunamis,
  expansive soils, floods)

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NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS

• Earth reinforcement
• Deep soil mixing
• Jet grouting
• Compaction grouting
• Geosynthetics

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NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS (Cont.)

• Micro-piles
• Micro-tunnels
• Geocomposites
• Geophysical methods

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INVASIVENESS OF MEASUREMENTS

• Satellites, Aircraft
• Helicopter
• Walk on ground
• Disturbance, lt 1m
• Disturbance, lt 100 m

• Remote sensing, photo
• Remote sensing, electromagnetic magnetic
• Magnetics, gravity, GPR, conductivity
• Seismic, resistivity, sampling geochemical,
  biological, soil
• Penetrometers boreholes and samples, downhole
  measurements, tomography

INCREASING INVASIVENESS
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APPLICATIONS OF NON-INVASIVE METHODS

• Characterization of subsurface for- waste
  disposal, containment, remediation-
  infrastructure construction
• Locating- voids- resources- underground
  utilities- buried land mines and unexploded
  ordnance
• Monitoring- ground movements- infrastructure
  decay
• Archeological or forensic investigations
• Search and rescue

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NEW REALITIES OF ENGINEERING PRACTICE AND
CONSTRUCTION

• Public participation
• Regulatory and Legal issues
• Health and Safety
• Decision and risk analysis
• Design-Build replacing Design-Bid-Build
• Questionable benefit/cost
• Struggling economies
• Poorly defined goals

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PREDICTING THE FUTURE

• Predictions are very difficult especially
  about the future
  (Neils Bohr)

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• Heavier than air flying machines are
  impossible. (Lord Kelvin, 1895)
• I think there is a world market for maybe five
  computers (Thomas Watson, Chairman of IBM,
  1943)

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• We dont like their sound, and guitar music is
  on the way out. (Decca Records rejection of
  the Beatles, 1962)
• 640 K ought to be enough for anybody
  (Bill Gates, 1981)

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SOME KNOWLEDGE NEEDS

• Liquefaction and predicting its consequences
• Evaluation of improved ground
• Prediction of deformations
• Dealing with Difficult Dirt
• Foundation Capacity
• Improved site characterization
• Constitutive models (always!)

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PAPERS IN THE 2001 J.G.E.E., A.S.C.E.(What
people are working on)

• Piles and drilled piers 19
• Geotech EQ engrg and liquefaction 13
• Constitutive behavior, mechanics 7
• Ground improvement and stabilization 7
• Properties and behavior 6
• Micro-mechanics 5
• Contaminant transport
  5
• Stability 5
• Geosynthetics
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• Lateral Pressures, excavations 4
• Others 13

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NETWORK FOR EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING SIMULATION
(NEES)(Sponsored by the National Science
Foundation)

• A system of experimental facilities linked by
  advanced telecommunications that is capable of
  real-time interactive collaboration across the
  U.S.

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SOME NEW FRONTIERS

• Micro-mechanics
• Nano-technologies
• Biological processes
• Seeing into the earth
• Smart materials
• Self-monitoring and correcting systems

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KEY QUESTIONS

• What is soil?
• How does it respond to different stimuli?
• Why does it respond this way?
• How do we relate the answers to these questions
  to the problem or project at hand?

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Fundamental Mechanical Properties

• Volume change
• Stress-strain
• Strength
• Hydraulic conductivity
• (and their changes with time)

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MOST IMPORTANT UNSOLVED PROBLEMS

• Commoditization of services
• Narrowing the gap between state-of-practice and
  state-of-knowledge rapid transfer of best
  research results into practice
• Seismic behavior of earth structures
• Displacements of earth structures during and
  after construction

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MOST IMPORTANT UNSOLVED PROBLEMS(Cont.)

• Characterizing and designing for materials
  falling between soil and rock
• Time effects in disturbed ground
• Improved site characterization
• How to generalize and simplify the discipline

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RESEARCH WITH HIGH PAYOFF BY 2010

• Faster, less expensive, more reliable in-situ
  testing
• Rapid methods of site assessment/characterization/
  investigation
• Less expensive, easier to use high level analysis
  methods
• New and better ground improvement technologies

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RESEARCH WITH HIGH PAYOFF BY 2010(Cont.)

• How to apply GIS and the WWW to maximize value of
  our collective knowledge base
• 21st Century implementation of the Observational
  Method real time integration of observations,
  test data, analysis and design during
  construction

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On this occasion of the launch of the new
Nottingham Centre for Geomechanics, the
challenges are many, the opportunities to make a
difference are great, and I wish you all the best
success in your efforts to lead the way during
the exciting and unpredictable times that lie
ahead.