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Perception and Learning:Understanding and Adapting to the Work Environment

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The process by which individuals attempt to determine the causes behind other's behaviour ... Focus on behaviour in situations with low demand for social acceptability ... – PowerPoint PPT presentation

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Title: Perception and Learning:Understanding and Adapting to the Work Environment


1
Chapter-2
  • Perception and LearningUnderstanding and
    Adapting to the Work Environment

2
Perception
  • The process through which people select,
    organize and interpret information
  • -active processing of sensory inputs

3
Social Perception
  • The process of combining, integrating and
    interpreting information about others to gain an
    accurate understanding of them
  • - various aspects including the
    attribution process

4
Attribution
  • The process by which individuals attempt to
    determine the causes behind others behaviour

5
Correspondent Inferences
  • Judgements about peoples dispositions, traits
    and characteristics that correspond to what we
    have observed of their actions

6
Challenges in judging others accurately
  • many possible causes of behaviour
  • People sometimes disguise their true
    characteristics

7
To make accurate Inferences
  • Focus on behaviour in situations with low demand
    for social acceptability
  • Focus on behaviour for which there is only one
    logical explanation

8
Figure 2.2
Correspondent Inferences Judging
Dispositions Based on Behavior
9
Causal attribution of Responsibility
  • Internal causes of behaviour-explanations based
    on actions for which the individual is
    responsible
  • External causes of behaviour- explanations based
    on situations over which the individual has no
    control

10
Kellys theory of causal attribution- internal
and external attributions are based on
  • Consensus-extent to which other people behave in
    the same manner as the person who we are judging
  • Consistency-extend to which the person who we are
    judging acts the same way at other times
  • Distinctiveness- extend to which a person behaves
    in the same manner in other contexts.

11
Kelly explains
  • Consensus- Do other people behave the same way
    like you
  • Consistency- Do you behave the same way at all
    time
  • Distinctiveness- Do you behave the same way at
    other situations

12
Perceptual Biases
  • Predispositions to misperceive others that
    interfere with making completely accurate
    judgements.
  • Fundamental attribution error- tendency to
    attribute others actions to internal causes
    while largely ignoring external factors
  • Strong bias because it is easier to attribute
    actions to others traits than to recognize
    the complexity of others situation

13
Figure 2.3
Kellys Theory of Causal Attribution A Summary
14
Halo Effect
  • Tendency for overall impressions of others to
    affect objective evaluations of their specific
    traits
  • Positive Halo- good impression causes us to view
    what the person does in favourable terms, even if
    we have no knowledge about the specific
    behaviours - results in consistently high ratings
  • Negative halo- results in consistently low ratings

15
Figure 2.4
The Halo Effect A Demonstration of Positive Halo
16
Similar- to- me effect
  • Tendency to perceive in a positive light
    others who are believed to be similar in any of
    several different ways.
  • - Greater empathy for and better relations with
    others who seem similar

17
First Impression Error
  • Tendency to base judgements of others on our
    first impression of them
  • - error may take very subtle forms

18
Figure 2.5
First Impression Error A Summary
19
Selective Perception
  • Tendency to focus on some aspects of the
    environment and to ignore others
  • -narrowing of our perceptual fields

20
Stereotypes- Fitting others into categories
  • Beliefs that all members of specific groups
    share similar traits and are prone to behave in
    the same way
  • Why do we rely on stereotypes?- minimizes
    cognitive work in thinking about others
  • Leads to premature judgements about people

21
Stereotypes(contd)
  • Dangers of using stereotypes in organizations-
  • Run the risk of causing miscommunication and
    conflict

22
Performance appraisal
  • Process of evaluating employees on various
    work-related dimensions
  • An inherently biased process- process is far from
    objective
  • -ratings depend on extend to which performance is
    consistent with raters initial expectations
  • ratings reflect similar to me bias
  • ratings qualified by the nature of attributions
    made about performance

23
Cultural differences in Performance Evaluations
  • Evaluations of others work influenced by nations
    from which they come

24
Impression management
  • Efforts by individuals to improve how they appear
    to prospective employers
  • Self Promotion- asserting one has desirable
    characteristics

25
Corporate Image
  • The impressions that people have of an
    organisation
  • Factors contributing to corporate Image
  • amount of information contained in recruitment
    ads- longer ads typically associated with more
    positive images
  • annual report-Official statement for stockholders

26
Learning Adapting to the World Around Us
  • Learning- a relatively permanent change in
    behaviour resulting from experience
  • -cannot be observed directly
  • -must be inferred from permanent changes in
    behaviour

27
Operant( Instrumental) Conditioning
  • Learning in which people associate the
    consequences of their actions with the actions
    themselves
  • behaviour with positive consequences are
    acquired.i.e.., repeated in the future
  • behaviour with negative consequences are
    eliminated

28
Law of Effect
  • Tendency for behaviours leading to desirable
    consequences to be strengthened and for the
    behaviours leading to undesirable consequences to
    be weakened

29
Operant Conditioning(contd)
  • Reinforcement contingencies- relationships
    between a persons behaviour and the consequences
    resulting from it.
  • Positive reinforcement
  • Negative reinforcement
  • Punishment
  • Extinction

30
Positive reinforcement
  • Process through which people learn to perform
    behaviours leading to the presentation of the
    desired outcomes

31
Negative Reinforcement(avoidance)
  • Process through which people learn to perform
    acts that lead to the removal of undesired events

32
Punishment
  • Decreasing desirable behaviour by following it
    with undesirable consequences

33
Extinction
  • Process through which responses that are no
    longer reinforced tend to gradually diminish in
    strength

34
Operant Conditioning(contd)
  • Schedules of reinforcement-rules governing the
    timing and frequency of administering
    reinforcement
  • Continuous Reinforcement- schedule in which all
    desired behaviours are reinforced
  • Partial Reinforcement- schedule in which only
    some desired behaviours are reinforced

35
Figure 2.9
The Operant Conditioning Process. An Overview
36
Reinforcement Schedules
  • Fixed Interval- a fixed period of time must
    elapse between reinforcements
  • Variable Interval- a variable period of time
    (based on some average) must elapse between
    reinforcements
  • Fixed Ratio- a fixed number of responses must
    occur between reinforcements
  • Variable Ratio- a variable number of responses
    (based on some average) must occur between
    reinforcements

37
Observational Learning(Modeling)
  • People acquire new behaviours by
    systematically observing the rewards and
    punishments given to others
  • Knowledge acquired vicariously
  • behaviour of a model is imitated

38
Steps In Observational learning
  • Pay careful attention of the model
  • good retention of the models behaviour
  • behavioural reproduction of the models behaviour
  • person motivated to learn from the model
  • Much of what is learned about how to behave in
    organisations can be explained by observational
    learning
  • -formal job training
  • -absorption of norms and traditions

39
Training
  • Process of systematically teaching employees
    to acquire and improve job-related skills and
    knowledge
  • Varieties of Training- both formal and informal
  • Apprenticeship program
  • Cross cultural
  • Executive Training
  • Corporate Universities

40
Apprenticeship programs
  • Formal programs, often used in the skilled
    trades, involving both on the job and class room
    training, usually over a long period

41
Cross -cultural Training
  • Systematic way of preparing employees to live and
    work in another country

42
Executive Training
  • Systematic development of top company leaders,
    either in specific skills or in general
    managerial skills

43
Corporate Universities
  • Centers devoted to handling a companys
    training needs on a full time basis.

44
Keys to Effective Training
  • Participation- active involvement in the learning
    process
  • Repetition-repeatedly performing a task so that
    it may be fully learned
  • Transfer of learning- degree to which skills
    learned during training may be applied to
    performance of ones job
  • - training is more effective to the degree that
    it matches the demands and conditions on a job
  • Feedback- Knowledge of the results of ones
    behaviour

45
360 degree Feed back
  • Collection of performance feedback from
    multiple sources at various organizational levels

46
Figure 2.12
360 Feedback An Overview
47
Innovative Reward Systems
  • Based on various principles of learning
  • Skill-based pay- people are paid based on the
    number of different skills they have learned
    relevant to performing one or more jobs in the
    organization
  • Team-based rewards-employees are paid based on
    their teams performance

48
Organizational behaviour management(OB Mod)-
principles
  • Pinpoint the desired behaviour- specify new,
    desired behaviour.
  • Perform baseline audit- measure level of
    behaviour
  • Define a criterion standard- performance goal
  • Choose a reinforcer-nature of reward for desired
    behaviour
  • Selectively reward desired behaviour- shaping
  • Periodically re-evaluate the program

49
Shaping
  • The process of selectively reinforcing
    behaviours that approach a desired goal behaviour

50
Discipline
  • Systematically administering punishment to
    eliminate undesirable organizational behaviours

51
Disciplinary practices in Organizations
  • Progressive discipline- gradually increasing the
    severity of punishments for employees who exhibit
    unacceptable job behaviour
  • Clarify contingencies-publicize punishment rules
  • Punish all instances of inappropriate behaviour
  • Take immediate actions

52
Keys to use punishment effectively
  • Deliver punishment immediately after undesirable
    behaviour occurs.
  • Give moderate levels of punishment- not too high
    or not too low
  • Punish the undesirable behaviour, not the person
  • Use punishment consistently
  • Clearly communicate reasons for the punishment
  • Do not follow punishment with noncontigent
    rewards

53
The End
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