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Sociological Research Methods

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Title: Sociological Research Methods


1
Chapter 2
  • Sociological Research Methods

2
Chapter Outline
  • Why is Sociological Research Necessary?
  • The Sociological Research Process
  • Research Methods
  • Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

3
Common Sense and Sociological Suicide
  • Common sense may tell us that people who threaten
    suicide will not commit suicide.
  • Sociological research indicates that people who
    threaten to kill themselves may attempt suicide.
  • Common sense may tell us that suicide is caused
    by despair or depression.
  • Research suggests that suicide is sometimes used
    as a means of lashing out because of real or
    imagined wrongs.

4
Common Sense and Sociological Suicide
  • Historically, the commonsense view of suicide was
    that it was a sin, a crime, and a mental illness.
  • Emile Durkheim related suicide to the issue of
    cohesiveness in society.
  • In Suicide, Durkheim documented his contention
    that a high suicide rate was symptomatic of
    large-scale societal problems.
  • His approach to research still influences
    researchers.

5
How Much Do You Know About Suicide?
  • True or False?
  • In the United States, suicide occurs on the
    average of one every 18 minutes.

6
How Much Do You Know About Suicide?
  • True
  • A suicide occurs on the average of every 18
    minutes in the United States.
  • This differs with respect to the sex,
    race/ethnicity, and age of the individual.
  • Men are four times more likely to kill themselves
    than are women.

7
How Much Do You Know About Suicide?
  • True or False?
  • More teenagers and young adults die from suicide
    than from cancer, heart disease, AIDS, birth
    defects, stroke, pneumonia, influenza, and
    chronic lung disease combined.

8
How Much Do You Know About Suicide?
  • True.
  • Suicide is a leading cause of death among
    teenagers and young adults.
  • It is the third leading cause of death among
    young people between 15 and 24 years of age,
    following unintentional injuries and homicide.

9
Question
  • Within the past 12 months, how many people have
    you known personally that have committed suicide?

10
GSS National Data
11
Sociology and Scientific Evidence
  • Sociology involves debunking, unmasking false
    ideas or opinions.
  • Two approaches
  • Normative
  • Empirical

12
The Normative Approach
  • The normative approach uses religion, customs,
    habits, traditions, and law to answer important
    questions.
  • It is based on beliefs about what is right and
    wrong and what ought to be in society.

13
The Empirical Approach
  • The empirical approach attempts to answer
    questions through systematic collection and
    analysis.
  • This is referred to as scientific method, and is
    based on the assumption that knowledge is gained
    by direct, systematic observation.

14
Sociology and Scientific Standards
  • Two basic scientific standards must be met
  • Scientific beliefs should be supported by good
    evidence or information.
  • These beliefs should be open to public debate and
    critiques from other scholars, with alternative
    interpretations being considered.

15
Question
  • The scientific method is based on the assumption
    that knowledge is best gained by
  • direct observation
  • systematic observation
  • the support of good evidence
  • the possibility for public debate
  • all of these choices

16
Answer e
  • The scientific method is based on the assumption
    that knowledge is best gained by direct
    observation, systematic observation, the support
    of good evidence and the possibility for public
    debate.

17
Types of Empirical Studies
  • Descriptive studies attempt to describe social
    reality or provide facts about some group,
    practice, or event.
  • Designed to find out what is happening to whom,
    where, and when.
  • Explanatory studies attempt to explain cause and
    effect relationships and to provide information
    on why certain events do or do not occur.

18
Theory and Research Cycle
  • A theory is a set of logically interrelated
    statements that attempts to describe, explain,
    and (occasionally) predict social events.
  • Research is the process of systematically
    collecting information for the purpose of testing
    an existing theory or generating a new one.
  • The theory and research cycle consists of
    deductive and inductive approaches.

19
Deductive Approach
  • Researcher begins with a theory and uses research
    to test the theory
  • Theories generate hypotheses.
  • Hypotheses lead to observations.
  • Observations lead to the formation of
    generalizations.
  • Generalizations are used to support the theory,
    to suggest modifications to it, or to refute it.

20
Inductive Approach
  • Researcher collects information or data (facts or
    evidence) and then generates theories from the
    analysis of that data.
  • Specific observations suggest generalizations.
  • Generalizations produce a tentative theory.
  • The theory is tested through the formation of
    hypotheses.
  • Hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional
    observations.

21
Question
  • The _____ approach begins with a theory and uses
    research to test the theory.
  • inductive
  • deductive
  • quantitative
  • qualitative

22
Answer b
  • The deductive approach begins with a theory and
    uses research to test the theory.

23
Theory and Research Cycle
24
Understanding Statistical Data Presentations
  • Sociologists use statistical tables to present a
    lot of information in a relatively small space.
  • To understand a table, follow these steps
  • Read the title.
  • Check the source and explanatory notes.
  • Read the headings for each column and row.
  • Examine and compare the data.
  • Draw conclusions.

25
U.S. Suicides, Sex And Method
26
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
  • Quantitative research focuses on data that can be
    measured numerically (comparing rates of suicide,
    for example).
  • Qualitative research focuses on interpretive
    description rather than statistics to analyze
    underlying meanings and patterns of social
    relationships.

27
Conventional Research Model
  • Select and define the research problem.
  • Review previous research.
  • Formulate the hypothesis.
  • Develop the research design.
  • Collect and analyze the data.
  • Draw conclusions and report the findings.

28
Question
  • With _____research, interpretive description
    (words) rather than statistics (numbers) is used
    to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of
    social relationships.
  • inductive
  • deductive
  • quantitative
  • qualitative

29
Answer d
  • With qualitative research, interpretive
    description (words) rather than statistics
    (numbers) is used to analyze underlying meanings
    and patterns of social relationships.

30
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31
Definitions
  • Hypothesis - a statement of the relationship
    between two or more concepts.
  • The independent variable is presumed to cause or
    determine a dependent variable.
  • The dependent variable is assumed to depend on or
    be caused by the independent variable(s).

32
Definitions
  • In random sampling, every member of an entire
    populationbeing studied has the same chance of
    being selected.
  • In probability sampling, participants are
    deliberately chosen because they have specific
    characteristics, possibly including such factors
    as age, sex, race/ethnicity, and educational
    attainment.

33
Definitions
  • Validity is the extent to which a study or
    research instrument accurately measures what it
    is supposed to measure.
  • Reliability is the extent to which a study or
    research instrument yields consistent results
    when applied to different individuals at one time
    or to the same individuals over time.

34
Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables
  • Causal Relationship

35
Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables
  • Inverse Causal Relationship

36
Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables
  • Multiple-cause Explanation\

37
Question
  • In a medical study, lung cancer could be the
    _____ variable, while smoking could be the ______
    variable.
  • dependant, independent
  • independent, dependant
  • valid, reliable
  • reliable, valid

38
Answer a
  • In a medical study, lung cancer could be the
    dependant variable, while smoking could be the
    independent variable.

39
Question
  • In the book Suicide, Emile Durkheim used the
    _____ as the independent variable to determine
    its influence on the dependent variable, the rate
    of suicide.
  • degree of social integration in society
  • proportion of mental illness in society
  • degree of the spread of hysteria in the late 19th
    century
  • degree of religious participation

40
Answer a
  • In the book Suicide, Emile Durkheim used the
    degree of social integration in society as the
    independent variable to determine its influence
    on the dependent variable, the rate of suicide.

41
Qualitative Research Method
  • Researcher begins with a general approach rather
    than a highly detailed plan.
  • Researcher has to decide when the literature
    review and theory application should take place.

42
Qualitative Research Method
  • The study presents a detailed view of the topic.
  • Access to people or other resources that can
    provide necessary data is crucial.
  • Appropriate research method(s) are important for
    acquiring useful qualitative data.

43
Research Methods Survey Research
  • Describes a population without interviewing each
    individual.
  • Standardized questions force respondents into
    categories.
  • Relies on self-reported information, and some
    people may not be truthful.

44
Research Methods Analysis of Existing Data
  • Materials studied may include
  • books, diaries, poems, and graffiti
  • movies, television shows, advertisements,
    greeting cards
  • music, art, and even garbage

45
Research Methods Field Research
  • Study of social life in its natural setting.
  • Observing and interviewing people where they
    live, work, and play.
  • Generates observations that are best described
    verbally rather than numerically.

46
Approaches to Field Research
  • Participant observation
  • Collecting observations while part of the
    activities of the group being studied.
  • Ethnography
  • Detailed study of the life and activities of a
    group of people over a period of years.

47
Approaches to Field Research
  • Case Studies - An in-depth, multifaceted
    investigation of a single event, person, or
    social grouping.
  • A collective case study involves multiple cases.
  • An unstructured interview is an extended,
    open-ended interaction between an interviewer and
    an interviewee.

48
Grounded Theory
  • Researchers who use grounded theory collect and
    analyze data simultaneously.
  • For example, after in-depth interviews with 106
    suicide attempters, researchers in one study
    concluded that half of the individuals who
    attempted suicide wanted both to live and to die
    at the time of their attempt.

49
Research Methods Experiments
  • Study the impact of certain variables on
    subjects attitudes or behavior.
  • Designed to create real-life situations.
  • Used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect
    relationship between variables.

50
Question
  • A university asks you to participate in an
    interview asking questions about your cheating
    attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. The
    researchers assure complete confidentiality. How
    likely are you to agree to the interview?
  • Very likely
  • Somewhat likely
  • Unsure
  • Somewhat unlikely
  • Very unlikely

51
Demonstrating Cause-and-Effect Relationships
  • Three conditions must be fulfilled
  • You must show that a correlation exists between
    the two variables.
  • You must ensure that the independent variable
    preceded the dependent variable.
  • You must make sure that any change in the
    dependent variable was not due to an extraneous
    variableone outside the stated hypothesis.

52
Correlation Versus Causation
  • A study might find that exposure to a suicide hot
    line is associated (correlated) with a change in
    attitude toward suicide.
  • But if some of the students who were exposed to
    the hot line also received psychiatric
    counseling, the counseling may be the hidden
    cause of the observed change in attitude.
  • In general, correlations alone do not prove
    causation.

53
Correlation Versus Causation
  • Observed Correlation

Possible Causal Explanation
54
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
55
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
56
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
57
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
58
Triangulation
  • Triangulation is the term used to describe the
    approach of combining multiple methods in a given
    study.
  • Triangulation refers not only to research methods
    but also to multiple data sources, investigators,
    and theoretical perspectives in a study.
  • Multiple data sources include persons,
    situations, contexts, and time.

59
ASA Code of Ethics
  • Disclose research findings in full and include
    all possible interpretations of the data.
  • Safeguard the participants right to privacy and
    dignity while protecting them from harm.

60
ASA Code of Ethics
  • Protect confidential information provided by
    participants.
  • Acknowledge research collaboration and disclose
    all financial support.

61
Quick Quiz
62
  • 1. The unmasking of fallacies in the everyday and
    official interpretations of society is called
  • defrauding
  • defeating
  • debunking
  • devaluing

63
Answer c
  • The unmasking of fallacies in the everyday and
    official interpretations of society is called
    debunking.

64
  • 2. The approach where the researcher collects
    information or data and then generates theories
    from analysis of the data is called
  • inductive
  • deductive
  • quantitative
  • qualitative

65
Answer a
  • The approach where the researcher collects
    information or data and then generates theories
    from analysis of the data is called inductive.

66
  • 3. With _____ research, the goal is scientific
    objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be
    measured numerically.
  • inductive
  • deductive
  • quantitative
  • qualitative

67
Answer c
  • With quantitative research, the goal is
    scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data
    that can be measured numerically.

68
  • 4. _____ exists when two variable are associated
    more frequently than could be expected by chance.
  • Multiple causation
  • Regression relation
  • Correlation
  • Spurious relation

69
Answer c
  • Correlation exists when two variable are
    associated more frequently than could be expected
    by chance.

70
  • 5. Reliability is the extent to which a study or
    research instrument
  • measures the phenomenon it is intended to
    measure.
  • yields consistent results.
  • approximates a true experiment.
  • relies on other variables to preserve validity.

71
Answer b
  • Reliability is the extent to which a study or
    research instrument yields consistent results.

72
  • 6. Validity is the extent to which a study or
    research instrument
  • accurately measures what it is supposed to
    measure.
  • yields consistent results.
  • approximates a true experiment.
  • relies on other variables to preserve validity.

73
Answer a
  • Validity is the extent to which a study or
    research instrument accurately measures what it
    is supposed to measure.
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