Title: Sociological Research Methods
1 Chapter 2
- Sociological Research Methods
2Chapter Outline
- Why is Sociological Research Necessary?
- The Sociological Research Process
- Research Methods
- Ethical Issues in Sociological Research
3Common Sense and Sociological Suicide
- Common sense may tell us that people who threaten
suicide will not commit suicide. - Sociological research indicates that people who
threaten to kill themselves may attempt suicide. - Common sense may tell us that suicide is caused
by despair or depression. - Research suggests that suicide is sometimes used
as a means of lashing out because of real or
imagined wrongs.
4Common Sense and Sociological Suicide
- Historically, the commonsense view of suicide was
that it was a sin, a crime, and a mental illness. - Emile Durkheim related suicide to the issue of
cohesiveness in society. - In Suicide, Durkheim documented his contention
that a high suicide rate was symptomatic of
large-scale societal problems. - His approach to research still influences
researchers.
5How Much Do You Know About Suicide?
- True or False?
- In the United States, suicide occurs on the
average of one every 18 minutes.
6How Much Do You Know About Suicide?
- True
- A suicide occurs on the average of every 18
minutes in the United States. - This differs with respect to the sex,
race/ethnicity, and age of the individual. - Men are four times more likely to kill themselves
than are women.
7How Much Do You Know About Suicide?
- True or False?
- More teenagers and young adults die from suicide
than from cancer, heart disease, AIDS, birth
defects, stroke, pneumonia, influenza, and
chronic lung disease combined.
8How Much Do You Know About Suicide?
- True.
- Suicide is a leading cause of death among
teenagers and young adults. - It is the third leading cause of death among
young people between 15 and 24 years of age,
following unintentional injuries and homicide.
9Question
- Within the past 12 months, how many people have
you known personally that have committed suicide?
10GSS National Data
11Sociology and Scientific Evidence
- Sociology involves debunking, unmasking false
ideas or opinions. - Two approaches
- Normative
- Empirical
12The Normative Approach
- The normative approach uses religion, customs,
habits, traditions, and law to answer important
questions. - It is based on beliefs about what is right and
wrong and what ought to be in society.
13The Empirical Approach
- The empirical approach attempts to answer
questions through systematic collection and
analysis. - This is referred to as scientific method, and is
based on the assumption that knowledge is gained
by direct, systematic observation.
14Sociology and Scientific Standards
- Two basic scientific standards must be met
- Scientific beliefs should be supported by good
evidence or information. - These beliefs should be open to public debate and
critiques from other scholars, with alternative
interpretations being considered.
15Question
- The scientific method is based on the assumption
that knowledge is best gained by - direct observation
- systematic observation
- the support of good evidence
- the possibility for public debate
- all of these choices
16Answer e
- The scientific method is based on the assumption
that knowledge is best gained by direct
observation, systematic observation, the support
of good evidence and the possibility for public
debate.
17Types of Empirical Studies
- Descriptive studies attempt to describe social
reality or provide facts about some group,
practice, or event. - Designed to find out what is happening to whom,
where, and when. - Explanatory studies attempt to explain cause and
effect relationships and to provide information
on why certain events do or do not occur.
18Theory and Research Cycle
- A theory is a set of logically interrelated
statements that attempts to describe, explain,
and (occasionally) predict social events. - Research is the process of systematically
collecting information for the purpose of testing
an existing theory or generating a new one. - The theory and research cycle consists of
deductive and inductive approaches.
19Deductive Approach
- Researcher begins with a theory and uses research
to test the theory - Theories generate hypotheses.
- Hypotheses lead to observations.
- Observations lead to the formation of
generalizations. - Generalizations are used to support the theory,
to suggest modifications to it, or to refute it.
20Inductive Approach
- Researcher collects information or data (facts or
evidence) and then generates theories from the
analysis of that data. - Specific observations suggest generalizations.
- Generalizations produce a tentative theory.
- The theory is tested through the formation of
hypotheses. - Hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional
observations.
21Question
- The _____ approach begins with a theory and uses
research to test the theory. - inductive
- deductive
- quantitative
- qualitative
22Answer b
- The deductive approach begins with a theory and
uses research to test the theory.
23Theory and Research Cycle
24Understanding Statistical Data Presentations
- Sociologists use statistical tables to present a
lot of information in a relatively small space. - To understand a table, follow these steps
- Read the title.
- Check the source and explanatory notes.
- Read the headings for each column and row.
- Examine and compare the data.
- Draw conclusions.
25U.S. Suicides, Sex And Method
26Quantitative and Qualitative Research
- Quantitative research focuses on data that can be
measured numerically (comparing rates of suicide,
for example). - Qualitative research focuses on interpretive
description rather than statistics to analyze
underlying meanings and patterns of social
relationships.
27Conventional Research Model
- Select and define the research problem.
- Review previous research.
- Formulate the hypothesis.
- Develop the research design.
- Collect and analyze the data.
- Draw conclusions and report the findings.
28Question
- With _____research, interpretive description
(words) rather than statistics (numbers) is used
to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of
social relationships. - inductive
- deductive
- quantitative
- qualitative
29Answer d
- With qualitative research, interpretive
description (words) rather than statistics
(numbers) is used to analyze underlying meanings
and patterns of social relationships.
30(No Transcript)
31Definitions
- Hypothesis - a statement of the relationship
between two or more concepts. - The independent variable is presumed to cause or
determine a dependent variable. - The dependent variable is assumed to depend on or
be caused by the independent variable(s).
32Definitions
- In random sampling, every member of an entire
populationbeing studied has the same chance of
being selected. - In probability sampling, participants are
deliberately chosen because they have specific
characteristics, possibly including such factors
as age, sex, race/ethnicity, and educational
attainment.
33Definitions
- Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument accurately measures what it
is supposed to measure. - Reliability is the extent to which a study or
research instrument yields consistent results
when applied to different individuals at one time
or to the same individuals over time.
34Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables
35Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables
- Inverse Causal Relationship
36Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables
- Multiple-cause Explanation\
37Question
- In a medical study, lung cancer could be the
_____ variable, while smoking could be the ______
variable. - dependant, independent
- independent, dependant
- valid, reliable
- reliable, valid
38Answer a
- In a medical study, lung cancer could be the
dependant variable, while smoking could be the
independent variable.
39Question
- In the book Suicide, Emile Durkheim used the
_____ as the independent variable to determine
its influence on the dependent variable, the rate
of suicide. - degree of social integration in society
- proportion of mental illness in society
- degree of the spread of hysteria in the late 19th
century - degree of religious participation
40Answer a
- In the book Suicide, Emile Durkheim used the
degree of social integration in society as the
independent variable to determine its influence
on the dependent variable, the rate of suicide.
41Qualitative Research Method
- Researcher begins with a general approach rather
than a highly detailed plan. - Researcher has to decide when the literature
review and theory application should take place.
42Qualitative Research Method
- The study presents a detailed view of the topic.
- Access to people or other resources that can
provide necessary data is crucial. - Appropriate research method(s) are important for
acquiring useful qualitative data.
43Research Methods Survey Research
- Describes a population without interviewing each
individual. - Standardized questions force respondents into
categories. - Relies on self-reported information, and some
people may not be truthful.
44Research Methods Analysis of Existing Data
- Materials studied may include
- books, diaries, poems, and graffiti
- movies, television shows, advertisements,
greeting cards - music, art, and even garbage
45Research Methods Field Research
- Study of social life in its natural setting.
- Observing and interviewing people where they
live, work, and play. - Generates observations that are best described
verbally rather than numerically.
46Approaches to Field Research
- Participant observation
- Collecting observations while part of the
activities of the group being studied. - Ethnography
- Detailed study of the life and activities of a
group of people over a period of years.
47Approaches to Field Research
- Case Studies - An in-depth, multifaceted
investigation of a single event, person, or
social grouping. - A collective case study involves multiple cases.
- An unstructured interview is an extended,
open-ended interaction between an interviewer and
an interviewee.
48Grounded Theory
- Researchers who use grounded theory collect and
analyze data simultaneously. - For example, after in-depth interviews with 106
suicide attempters, researchers in one study
concluded that half of the individuals who
attempted suicide wanted both to live and to die
at the time of their attempt.
49Research Methods Experiments
- Study the impact of certain variables on
subjects attitudes or behavior. - Designed to create real-life situations.
- Used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect
relationship between variables.
50Question
- A university asks you to participate in an
interview asking questions about your cheating
attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. The
researchers assure complete confidentiality. How
likely are you to agree to the interview? - Very likely
- Somewhat likely
- Unsure
- Somewhat unlikely
- Very unlikely
51Demonstrating Cause-and-Effect Relationships
- Three conditions must be fulfilled
- You must show that a correlation exists between
the two variables. - You must ensure that the independent variable
preceded the dependent variable. - You must make sure that any change in the
dependent variable was not due to an extraneous
variableone outside the stated hypothesis.
52Correlation Versus Causation
- A study might find that exposure to a suicide hot
line is associated (correlated) with a change in
attitude toward suicide. - But if some of the students who were exposed to
the hot line also received psychiatric
counseling, the counseling may be the hidden
cause of the observed change in attitude. - In general, correlations alone do not prove
causation.
53Correlation Versus Causation
Possible Causal Explanation
54Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
55Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
56Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
57Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
58Triangulation
- Triangulation is the term used to describe the
approach of combining multiple methods in a given
study. - Triangulation refers not only to research methods
but also to multiple data sources, investigators,
and theoretical perspectives in a study. - Multiple data sources include persons,
situations, contexts, and time.
59ASA Code of Ethics
- Disclose research findings in full and include
all possible interpretations of the data. - Safeguard the participants right to privacy and
dignity while protecting them from harm.
60ASA Code of Ethics
- Protect confidential information provided by
participants. - Acknowledge research collaboration and disclose
all financial support.
61Quick Quiz
62- 1. The unmasking of fallacies in the everyday and
official interpretations of society is called - defrauding
- defeating
- debunking
- devaluing
63Answer c
- The unmasking of fallacies in the everyday and
official interpretations of society is called
debunking.
64- 2. The approach where the researcher collects
information or data and then generates theories
from analysis of the data is called - inductive
- deductive
- quantitative
- qualitative
65Answer a
- The approach where the researcher collects
information or data and then generates theories
from analysis of the data is called inductive.
66- 3. With _____ research, the goal is scientific
objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be
measured numerically. - inductive
- deductive
- quantitative
- qualitative
67Answer c
- With quantitative research, the goal is
scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data
that can be measured numerically.
68- 4. _____ exists when two variable are associated
more frequently than could be expected by chance. - Multiple causation
- Regression relation
- Correlation
- Spurious relation
69Answer c
- Correlation exists when two variable are
associated more frequently than could be expected
by chance.
70- 5. Reliability is the extent to which a study or
research instrument - measures the phenomenon it is intended to
measure. - yields consistent results.
- approximates a true experiment.
- relies on other variables to preserve validity.
71Answer b
- Reliability is the extent to which a study or
research instrument yields consistent results.
72 - 6. Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument - accurately measures what it is supposed to
measure. - yields consistent results.
- approximates a true experiment.
- relies on other variables to preserve validity.
73Answer a
- Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument accurately measures what it
is supposed to measure.