Cells: The Living Units

1
Chapter 3

• Cells The Living Units

2
Structure of a Generalized Cell
3
Structure of a Generalized Cell

• Plasma membrane
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Intracellular fluid
• organelles

4
Plasma Membrane

• Separates intracellular fluids from extracellular
  fluids
• Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity

5
Fluid Mosaic Model

• Double layer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed
  proteins
• Bilayer consists of phospholipids, cholesterol,
  glycolipids
• Glycolipids are lipids with bound carbohydrate
• Cholesterol stabilizes

6
Plasma Membrane

• Phospholipid bilayer
• 2 parallel sheets of phospholipid molecules
• Tail to tail
• Heads toward fluid

7
Membrane Proteins

• Many span the membrane
• Some attach loosely to the other proteins or
  lipids
• Functions
• Transport
• Enzymatic activity
• Receptors for signal transduction

8
Membrane Proteins

• Functions
• Intercellular adhesion
• Cell-cell recognition
• Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular
  matrix

9
Specializations of the Plasma Membrane

• Microvilli
• Increases the absorbing surface area
• Membrane Junctions
• Tight Junction
• impermeable
• encircles the cell

10
Specializations of the Plasma Membrane

• Membrane Junctions
• Desmosomes
• Anchoring junctions scattered along sides of
  cells
• Abundant in tissues subjected to high stress

11
Specializations of the Plasma Membrane

• Membrane Junctions
• Gap Junctions
• a nexus that allows chemical substances to pass
  between cells

12
Membrane Transport

• Passive processes substances cross membrane
  without any energy input from the cell
• Active processes - the cell provides the
  metabolic energy (ATP) required to move
  substances across the membrane.

13
Passive Membrane Transport Diffusion

• Tendency of molecules to scatter evenly
  throughout the environment
• Molecules move from areas of high concentration
  to areas of low concentration
• Molecules diffuse along, or down their
  concentration gradient
• Speed of diffusion influenced by
• Molecular size
• Temperature

14
HI Low
15
Passive Membrane Transport Diffusion

• Simple diffusion
• Tiny nonpolar and lipid soluble substances
• Diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer
• Examples O2, CO2, fat-soluble vitamins, alcohol

16
Passive Membrane Transport Diffusion

• Facilitated diffusion
• Channels
• Some are always open
• Some are gaited
• Selective due to pore size, charge in lining of
  channel
• Limits diffusion by saturation

17
Passive Membrane Transport Diffusion

• Facilitated diffusion
• Carriers
• Show specificity for certain polar molecules
  including sugars and amino acids
• Limits diffusion by number of carriers present

18
Passive Membrane Transport Osmosis

• Diffusion of solvent (water) across a
  semipermeable membrane
• Occurs when the concentration of a solvent is
  different on opposite sides of a membrane
• Osmolarity total concentration of solute
  particles in a solution

19
Effect of Membrane Permeability on Diffusion and
Osmosis
20
Effect of Membrane Permeability on Diffusion and
Osmosis
21
Effects of Solutions of Varying Tonicity

• Tonicity how a solution affects cell volume
• Isotonic solutions with the same solute
  concentration as that of the cytosol
• Hypertonic solutions having greater solute
  concentration than that of the cytosol
• Hypotonic solutions having lesser solute
  concentration than that of the cytosol

22
Passive Membrane Transport Filtration

• The passage of water and solutes through a
  membrane by hydrostatic pressure
• Pressure gradient pushes solute-containing fluid
  from a higher-pressure area to a lower-pressure
  area

23
Active Membrane Transport

• Primary active transport
• Uses ATP to move solutes across a membrane
• Requires carrier proteins
• Na-K pump

24
Sodium-Potassium Pump
25
Active Membrane Transport

• Secondary active transport use of an exchange
  pump (such as the Na-K pump) indirectly to
  drive the transport of other solutes

26
Vesicular Transport

• Transport of large particles and macromolecules
  across plasma membranes which requires ATP
• Exocytosis moves substance from the cell
  interior to the extracellular space
• Endocytosis enables large particles and
  macromolecules to enter the cell

27
Exocytosis
28
Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis
29
Cytoplasm

• Cytoplasm material between plasma membrane and
  the nucleus

30
Cytoplasm

• 3 major elements
• Cytosol largely water with dissolved protein,
  salts, sugars, and other solutes
• Cytoplasmic organelles metabolic machinery of
  the cell
• Inclusions chemical substances such as
  glycosomes, glycogen granules, and pigment

31
Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Specialized cellular compartments
• Membranous
• Mitochondria, peroxisomes, lysosomes, endoplasmic
  reticulum, and Golgi apparatus
• Nonmembranous
• Cytoskeleton, centrioles, and ribosomes

32
Mitochondria

• Double membrane structure with shelflike cristae
• Provide most of the cells ATP via aerobic
  cellular respiration
• Contain their own DNA and RNA

33
Ribosomes

• Granules containing protein and rRNA
• Site of protein synthesis
• Free ribosomes synthesize soluble proteins
• Membrane-bound ribosomes synthesize proteins to
  be incorporated into membranes or for export

34
Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Interconnected tubes and parallel membranes
  enclosing cisternae
• Continuous with the nuclear membrane
• Two varieties rough ER and smooth ER

35
Rough ER

• External surface studded with ribosomes
• Manufactures all secreted proteins
• Responsible for the synthesis of integral
  membrane proteins and phospholipids for cell
  membranes

36
Smooth ER

• Tubules arranged in a looping network
• Catalyzes the following reactions in various
  organs of the body
• In the liver lipid and cholesterol metabolism,
  breakdown of glycogen and, along with the
  kidneys, detoxification of drugs
• In the testes synthesis of steroid-based
  hormones
• In the intestinal cells absorption, synthesis,
  and transport of fats
• In skeletal and cardiac muscle storage and
  release of calcium

37
Golgi Apparatus

• Stacked and flattened membranous sacs
• Functions in modification, concentration, and
  packaging of proteins
• Transport vessels from the ER fuse with the cis
  face of the Golgi apparatus
• Proteins then pass through the Golgi apparatus to
  the trans face
• Secretory vesicles leave the trans face of the
  Golgi stack and move to designated parts of the
  cell

38
Lysosomes

• Spherical membranous bags containing digestive
  enzymes
• Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
• Degrade nonfunctional organelles
• Breakdown glycogen and release thyroid hormone
• Breakdown nonuseful tissue
• Breakdown bone to release Ca2
• Secretory lysosomes are found in white blood
  cells, immune cells, and melanocytes

39
Endomembrane System

• System of organelles that function to
• Produce, store, and export biological molecules
• Degrade potentially harmful substances
• System includes
• Nuclear envelope, smooth and rough ER, lysosomes,
  vacuoles, transport vesicles, Golgi apparatus,
  and the plasma membrane

40
Peroxisomes

• Membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases
• Detoxify harmful or toxic substances
• Neutralize dangerous free radicals
• Free radicals highly reactive chemicals with
  unpaired electrons (i.e., O2)

41
Cytoskeleton

• The skeleton of the cell
• Dynamic, elaborate series of rods running through
  the cytosol
• Consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and
  intermediate filaments

42
Microtubules

• Dynamic, hollow tubes made of the spherical
  protein tubulin
• Determine the overall shape of the cell and
  distribution of organelles

43
Microfilaments

• Dynamic strands of the protein actin
• Attached to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma
  membrane
• Braces and strengthens the cell surface
• Involved in in cell motility or change in shape

44
Intermediate Filaments

• Tough, insoluble protein fibers with high tensile
  strength
• Resist pulling forces on the cell and help form
  desmosomes

45
Centrioles

• Small barrel-shaped organelles located in the
  centrosome near the nucleus
• Pinwheel array of nine triplets of microtubules
• Organize mitotic spindle during mitosis
• Form the bases of cilia and flagella

46
Cilia

• Whiplike, motile cellular extensions on exposed
  surfaces of certain cells
• Move substances in one direction across cell
  surfaces

47
Nucleus

• Contains nuclear envelope, nucleoli, chromatin,
  and distinct compartments rich in specific
  protein sets
• Gene-containing control center of the cell
• Contains the genetic library with blueprints for
  nearly all cellular proteins
• Dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be
  synthesized

48
Nuclear Envelope

• Selectively permeable double membrane barrier
  containing pores
• Encloses jellylike nucleoplasm, which contains
  essential solutes
• Outer membrane is continuous with the rough ER
  and is studded with ribosomes
• Inner membrane is lined with the nuclear lamina,
  which maintains the shape of the nucleus
• Pore complex regulates transport of large
  molecules into and out of the nucleus

49
Nucleoli

• Dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus
• Site of ribosome production

50
Chromatin

• Threadlike strands of DNA and histones
• Arranged in fundamental units called nucleosomes
• Form condensed, barlike bodies of chromosomes
  when the nucleus starts to divide

51
Cell Life Cycle

• Interphase
• Growth (G1)
• Synthesis (S)
• Growth (G2)
• Mitotic phase
• Mitosis
• Cytokinesis

52
Cell Life Cycle Interphase

• G1 (gap 1) metabolic activity and vigorous
  growth
• G0 cells that permanently cease dividing
• S (synthetic) DNA replication
• G2 (gap 2) preparation for division

53
Cell Life Cycle Interphase

• Growth
• Extended and condensed chromatin
• Centrioles replicate

54
DNA Replication

• DNA helices begin unwinding from the nucleosomes
• Helicase untwists the double helix and exposes
  complementary strands
• Each nucleotide strand serves as a template for
  building a new complementary strand

55
DNA Replication

• RNA primers are formed by primase enzymes
• DNA polymerase III continues from the primer and
  covalently adds complementary nucleotides to the
  template
• http//www.ncc.gmu.edu/dna/repanim.htm

56
Cell Division

• Essential for body growth and tissue repair
• Mitosis nuclear division
• Cytokinesis division of the cytoplasm

57
Mitosis

• The phases of mitosis are
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase

58
Cytokinesis

• Cleavage furrow formed in late anaphase by
  contractile ring
• Cytoplasm is pinched into two parts after mitosis
  ends

59
Mitosis Early Prophase

• Asters are seen as chromatin condenses into
  chromosomes
• Nucleoli disappear
• Centriole pairs separate and the mitotic spindle
  is formed

60
Mitosis Late Prophase

• Nuclear envelope fragments
• Microtubules pull on chromosomes

61
Metaphase

• Chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell
  with their centromeres aligned at the exact
  center, or equator, of the cell
• This arrangement of chromosomes along a plane
  midway between the poles is called the metaphase
  plate

62
Anaphase

• Chromosomes split
• Pulled toward poles
• Cell elongates

63
TelophaseCytokinesis

• New sets of chromosomes extend into chromatin
• New nuclear membrane is formed from the rough ER
• Nucleoli reappear
• Generally cytokinesis completes cell division
• http//www.bio.davidson.edu/misc/movies/mitosisnew
  t.mov

64
Protein Synthesis

• Genes are segments of DNA carrying instructions
  for a polypeptide chain
• Triplets of nucleotide bases form the genetic
  library
• Each triplet specifies coding for an amino acid

• DNA serves as master
• blueprint for protein
• synthesis

65
Roles of the Three Types of RNA

• Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic
  information from DNA in the nucleus to the
  ribosomes in the cytoplasm
• Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) bring the correct amino
  acid to the ribosome
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) a structural component of
  ribosomes, decodes DNA

66
Transcription

• Transfer of information from the strand of DNA to
  RNA
• Occurs when the double strands of a DNA segment
  separate and complimentary RNA nucleotides pair
  with DNA nucleotides to form mRNA.
• The information is in the form of codons

67
Translation

• mRNA becomes associated with a ribosome
• rRNA in the ribosome decodes mRNA

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Translation

• tRNA
• tRNA bound to complimentary anticodon pairs with
  codon on mRMA
• Enzyme in large ribosomal subunit bonds the AAs
  togehter
• http//www.ncc.gmu.edu/dna/ANIMPROT.htm

69
Genetic Code

• RNA codons code for amino acids according to a
  genetic code

70
Information Transfer from DNA to RNA

• DNA triplets are transcribed into mRNA codons by
  RNA polymerase
• Codons base pair with tRNA anticodons at the
  ribosomes
• Amino acids are peptide bonded at the ribosomes
  to form polypeptide chains