AG 1303: Principles of Agronomy

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AG 1303 Principles of Agronomy

• Production principles of field crops and
  horticulture crops with emphasis on harvesting,
  economics, varieties, disease and pest control,
  planting and harvesting methods, cultural
  practices, irrigation and weed control.

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Agronomy

• A branch of agriculture dealing with field crop
  production and soil management.

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Introduction to Plants

• The kingdom Plantae encompasses water-dwelling
  red and green algae as well as terrestrial
  plants, which have evolved to support themselves
  outside of the aquatic environment of their
  ancestors.
• The terrestrial plants, which include bryophytes
  (mosses) as well as the more highly evolved
  vascular plants, called tracheophytes.

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Introduction to Plants

• As a consequence of their move onto land,
  terrestrial plants require structures that
  support their weight, prevent desiccation (drying
  out), aid in reproduction, and transport water,
  nutrients, and the products of photosynthesis
  throughout the parts of the plant.
• Bryophytes have not yet made the complete
  transition to land, and are thus still dependent
  upon a moist environment to assist in
  reproduction and nutrient transport.
• The more highly evolved tracheophytes, on the
  other hand, have developed internal systems of
  transport and support called vascular systems,
  which have allowed them to become fully
  terrestrial.

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Common Plant Characteristics

• As explored in Common Plant Characteristics ,
  most terrestrial plants (both bryophytes and
  tracheophytes) share some general structural and
  functional features.
• Plant bodies are divided into two regions, the
  underground root portion and the aerial shoot
  portion (including stem, leaves, flowers, and
  fruits).
• These different regions of the plant are
  dependent on each other, as each performs
  different essential functions.

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Common Plant Characteristics

• Land plants also share certain more specific
  adaptations that are essential to survival out of
  water.
• These include an impermeable waxy cuticle on the
  outer aerial surfaces, jacket cells around the
  reproductive organs, and stomata that allow gas
  exchange without risking excessive water loss.
• All Plants are also autotrophic, meaning that
  they produce their own food and do not use other
  organisms to supply organic nutrients the way
  animals do.
• Finally, the life cycle of plants follows a
  pattern called the alternation of generations, in
  which they fluctuate between haploid and diploid
  generations and sexual and asexual modes of
  reproduction.

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Plant Classification

• Terrestrial plants, as noted above, are
  classified as bryophytes and tracheophytes.
• Bryophytes, such as mosses and liverworts, are
  still dependent on a moist environment for
  reproductive and nutritive functions even though
  they are technically "terrestrial."
• Bryophytes also have very little internal
  support, limiting the heights to which they can
  grow.

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Plant Classification

• As a phylum, Bryophytes, are lower on the
  evolutionary scale than tracheophytes, which have
  adapted completely to life on land.
• Tracheophytes (also known as vascular plants)
  possess well-developed vascular systems, which
  are comprised of tissues that form internal
  passageways through which water and dissolved
  nutrients can traverse the entire plant.

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Plant Classification

• Vascular plants are thus far less reliant on
  moist environments for survival.
• At the same time, Vascular systems also provide a
  strong system of support to the plant, allowing
  some tracheophytes to grow to immense heights.
• The tracheophytes can be further broken down into
  two kinds of seed-producing plants, gymnosperms
  (conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants).

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Plant Classification

• The male gametes of gymnosperms and angiosperms
  are carried by pollen each of these types of
  plants also produce seeds, which protect the
  embryos inside from drying out in a terrestrial
  environment.
• Angiosperms, with their flowers and fruits, have
  adapted even further to the terrestrial
  environment flowers, by attracting insects and
  other pollen-bearing animals, aid in the transfer
  of pollen to female reproductive organs.
• Angiosperm fruits, developed from ovaries,
  protect the seeds and help in their dispersal.
• Finally, angiosperms themselves are divided into
  two classes--monocots and dicots--based on
  differences in embryonic development, root
  structure, flower petal arrangement, and other
  factors.

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Structures and Functions

• The seed, which develops from an ovule after
  fertilization has occurred, surrounds the plant
  embryo and protects it from desiccation.
• Each seed consists of an embryo, food source, and
  protective outer coat, and can lie dormant for
  some time before germinating.
• The roots of a plant function in the storage of
  nutrients, the acquisition of water and minerals
  (from the soil), and the anchoring of the plant
  to the substrate.

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Structures and Functions

• Tiny root hairs, which extend from the root
  surface, provide the plant with a huge total
  absorptive surface and are responsible for most
  of the plant's water and mineral intake.
• Plant stems (or trunks, as they are called in
  trees) function primarily in nutrient transport
  and physical support.
• The leaves contain chlorophyll and are the major
  sites of photosynthesis and gas exchange.
• Flowers contain the reproductive organs of
  angiosperms.

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Essential Processes

• Plants carry out a number of processes that are
  essential to their survival.
• Internal water and sugar transport are largely
  carried out within the vascular system, ensuring
  that the entire plant receives water and food
  even though these materials are brought in or
  produced only in certain parts of the plant.

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Essential Processes

• Plant hormones determine the timing and
  occurrence of many of the processes of the plant,
  from germination to tissue growth to
  reproduction.
• Plants can also respond to light, touch, and
  gravity in various ways.

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Life Cycle

• The life cycle of plants depends upon the
  alternation of generations, the fluctuation
  between the diploid (sporophyte) and haploid
  (gametophyte) life stages.
• Reproduction in most plants can occur both
  sexually and asexually.
• In sexual reproduction, fertilization occurs when
  a male gamete (sperm cell) joins with an egg cell
  to produce a zygote.

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Life Cycle

• In gymnosperms and angiosperms (the seed plants),
  the ovule containing the egg cell becomes a seed
  after fertilization has occurred.
• In angiosperms (flowering plants), the embryo is
  given added protection by an ovary, which
  develops into a fruit.
• Plants can also reproduce asexually through
  vegetative propagation, a process in which plants
  produce genetically identical offshoots (clones)
  of themselves, which then develop into
  independent plants.
• This asexual means of reproduction can occur
  naturally through specialized structures such as
  tubers, runners, and bulbs or artificially
  through grafting.

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Classification Based on Life Span

• From a horticultural perspective, life span is a
  function of climate and usage.
• Many garden plants (including tomatoes and
  geraniums) grown as annuals in Colorado would be
  perennials in climates without freezing winter
  temperatures.

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Annuals

• Complete their life cycle (from seedling to
  setting seed) within a SINGLE growing season.
• However, the growing season may be from fall to
  summer, not just spring to fall.
• These plants come back from seeds only.

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Summer annuals

• Germinate from seed in the spring and complete
  flowering and seed production by fall, followed
  by plant death, usually due to cold temperatures.
  
• Their growing season is from spring to fall.
• Examples marigolds, squash, and crabgrass. These
  are also called warm season annuals.

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Winter annuals

• Germinate from seed in the fall, with flowering
  and seed development the following spring,
  followed by plant death.
• Their growing season is from fall to summer.
• Examples winter wheat and annual bluegrass.
• These are also referred to as cool season
  annuals.
• Many weeds in the lawn (such as chickweed and
  annual bluegrass) are winter annuals.

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Biennials

• Germinate from seed during the growing season and
  often produce an over-wintering storage root or
  bulb the first summer.
• Quite often they maintain a rosette growth habit
  the first season, meaning that all the leaves are
  basal.
• They flower and develop seeds the second summer,
  followed by death.

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Biennials

• In the garden setting, we grow many biennials as
  annuals (e.g., carrots, onions, and beets)
  because we are more interested in the root than
  the bloom.
• Some biennial flowers may be grown as short-lived
  perennials (e.g., hollyhocks).

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Perennials

• Live through several growing seasons, and can
  survive a period of dormancy between growing
  seasons.
• These plants regenerate from root systems or
  protected buds, in addition to seeds.

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Perennials

• Herbaceous perennials develop over-wintering
  woody tissue only at the base of shoots (e.g.
  peony and hosta) or have underground storage
  structures from which new stems are produced.
• (Please note Golden Vicary Privet can be either
  herbaceous or woody as grown in Colorado.)

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Perennials

• Spring ephemerals have a relatively short growing
  season but return next season from underground
  storage organs (e.g. bleeding heart, daffodils).
• Woody perennials develop over-wintering tissue
  along woody stems and in buds, (e.g. most trees
  and shrubs grown in Colorado).
• Combination plants are usually classified as
  annual, biennial or perennial on the basis of the
  plant part that lives the longest. For example,
  raspberries have biennial canes and perennial
  roots

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Classification by Climatic Requirements
Temperature Requirements

• Tropical plants originate in tropical climates
  with a year-round summer like growing season
  without freezing temperatures.
• Examples include cocoa, cashew and macadamia
  nuts, bananas, mango, papaya, and pineapple.

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Classification by Climatic Requirements
Temperature Requirements

• Sub-tropical plants cannot tolerate severe winter
  temperatures but need some winter chilling.
• Examples include citrus, dates, figs, and olives.
• Temperate-zone plants require a cold winter
  season as well as summer growing season and are
  adapted to survive temperatures considerably
  below freezing point.
• Examples include apples, cherries, peaches,
  maples, cottonwoods, and aspen.
• In temperate zones, tropical and sub-tropical
  plants are grown as annuals and houseplants.

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Classification by Climatic Requirements
Temperature Requirements

• Cool season plants thrive in cool temperatures
  (40 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit daytime
  temperatures) and are somewhat tolerant of light
  frosts.
• Examples include Kentucky bluegrass, peas,
  lettuce, and pansies.
• Warm season plants thrive in warm temperatures
  (65 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit daytime
  temperatures) and are intolerant of cool
  temperatures.
• Examples include corn, tomatoes and squash.

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Classification by Climatic Requirements
Temperature Requirements

• Tender plants are intolerant of cool
  temperatures, frost and cold winds.
• Examples include most summer annuals, including
  impatiens, squash, and tomatoes.
• Hardy plants are tolerant of cool temperatures,
  light frost and cold winds (e.g., spring
  flowering bulbs, spring-flowering perennials,
  peas, lettuce).

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Classification by Climatic Requirements
Temperature Requirements

• Hardiness refers to a plants tolerance to winter
  climatic conditions.
• Factors that influence hardiness include minimum
  temperature, recent temperature patterns, water
  supply, wind and sun exposure, genetic makeup,
  and carbohydrate reserves.
• Cold hardiness zone refers to the average annual
  minimum temperature for a geographic area.
• Temperature is only one factor that influences a
  plants winter hardiness.
• The USDA Hardiness zone map http//www.usna.usda
  .gov/Hardzone/ushzmap.html

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Classification by Climatic Requirements
Temperature Requirements

• Heat zone refers to the accumulation of heat, a
  primary factor on how fast crops grow and what
  crops are suitable for any given area. This is
  only one factor that influences a plants heat
  tolerance. On a heat zone map, the Colorado Front
  Range falls into zones 5 to 7.

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Soil Functions

• The soil FURNISHES nutrients, minerals, water,
  and support for plants. No plants, no us!
• The soil FILTERS water removing toxins and
  pollutants.
• The soil RECYCLES materials, organisms Carbon,
  Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Nitrogen compounds.

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Soil Functions (continued)

• The soil is used for the ENGINEERING of roads,
  ponds, buildings, and basically the foundation of
  all production.
• The soil provides an ECOSYSTEM or home for
  decomposers, bacteria, fungi, and animals.

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Soil Texture

• Soil Texture is the physical make-up of the soil.
  The particles of soil themselves.
• When we talk texture, we mean
• SAND particles of soil from 2mm-.05mm
• SILT particles of soil from .05mm- .002mm
• CLAY particles of soil from .002mm-.001mm
• Particles are rarely found smaller than .001mm
  however, if found they are called Golloids.

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Soil Texture (Repetition is the Mother of
Learning)

• Sand the largest particles of soil (2mm-.05mm)
• Silt .05mm- .002mm
• Clay the smallest particles of soil
  (.002mm-smaller than .001mm)
• Golloids are the smallest particles of clay

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Soil Texture (continued)

• Particles of soil larger than 2mm are considered
  rock.
• Can anyone tell what three types/kind of rock are
  found?
• Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic

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Rock

• Igneous is produced from silicon
• Sedimentary is produced from Calcium Carbon
• Metamorphic produced by limestone, granite, and
  shell.

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Soil Factors

• Soil texture can be determined easiest when it is
  moist.
• Sand is gritty when rubbed between the thumb and
  index finger.
• Silt feels floury and velvety.
• Clay usually forms lumps or clods when dry, and
  is usually like plastic and sticky when wet.

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Soil Factors

• Coarse- Textured Soil soil is loose, very
  friable, and individual sand grains can be seen
  or felt. This is sand-box sand.
• Moderately Coarse- Textured Soil soil is gritty
  but contains enough silt and clay to make moist
  soil form a mold.

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Soil Factors

• Medium- Textured soil may feel slightly gritty,
  smooth or velvety when moist. The soil can form a
  mold that will retain shape but will not ribbon.
• Moderately- Textured soil usually breaks into
  clods or lumps when dry. This soil will ribbon
  when moist however, the ribbon will tend to
  break and flex downward.

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Soil Factors

• Fine- Textured soil will form very hard lumps or
  clods when dry, but will be plastic and sticky
  when wet. The soil will ribbon and it will
  support itself.

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Soil Structure

• Soil Structure refers to the layers found in
  soil. The combinations of particles or
  arrangement of them.
• Levels of the soil are expressed as horizons.
• These horizons are the structure, and when they
  are viewed they are Soil Profiles.

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Soil Structure (continued)

• O Horizon - The top, organic layer of soil, made
  up mostly of leaf litter and humus (decomposed
  organic matter).
• A Horizon - The layer called topsoil it is found
  below the O horizon and above the E horizon.
  Seeds germinate and plant roots grow in this
  dark-colored layer. It is made up of humus
  (decomposed organic matter) mixed with mineral
  particles.
• E Horizon - This eluviation (leaching) layer is
  light in color this layer is beneath the A
  Horizon and above the B Horizon. It is made up
  mostly of sand and silt, having lost most of its
  minerals and clay as water drips through the soil
  (in the process of eluviation)..

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Soil Structure (continued)

• B Horizon - Also called the subsoil - this layer
  is beneath the E Horizon and above the C Horizon.
  It contains clay and mineral deposits (like iron,
  aluminum oxides, and calcium carbonate) that it
  receives from layers above it when mineralized
  water drips from the soil above.
• C Horizon - Also called regolith the layer
  beneath the B Horizon and above the R Horizon. It
  consists of slightly broken-up bedrock. Plant
  roots do not penetrate into this layer very
  little organic material is found in this layer.
• R Horizon - The unweathered rock (bedrock) layer
  that is beneath all the other layers

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Science and Agriculture

• Science is the study of or the explanation of
  natural phenomena.
• Agriculture is the most important of all sciences
  because we depend on agriculture for basic
  survival needs.
• With out soil there would be no plants, with out
  plants there would be no animals, and you are an
  animal.

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Growing plants

• Plants provide our food with food, us with food,
  and clothing.
• But what else do plants provide us with?
• Medicines, vaccines, antibodies LIFE!

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The Importance of Plants in Our Daily Lives

• Plants provide us with the basis of survival.
• Wheat and Barley are among the oldest known
  cultivated crops.
• Plants can thrive without people and animals
  however, people and animals can NOT survive
  without plants.
• Plants provide us with food, oxygen, fossil
  fuels, and prevent the erosion of soil.

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Importance of Plants (continued)

• Herbivores consume approximately 10 of the plant
  biomass produced in a typical food chain.
• Carnivores capture and consume about 10 of the
  energy stored by the herbivores.

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The Significance of the Binomial System of Naming
Plants

• There are over 500,000 different recognized
  plants in the world.
• The Binomial System was developed by Carolus
  Linnaeus.

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The Significance of the Binomial System of Naming
Plants (continued)

• First word is the genus
• Second word is the species
• Third word is the authority of abbreviation

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The Four Major Plant Parts

• Roots
• Stems
• Leaves
• Flowers

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Plant Root

• Underground parts of most plants
• Absorb water and minerals
• Store starch as food reserve
• Anchor the plant

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Root Systems

• Taproots have a dominant main segment and are a
  characteristic of many dicot plants
• Fibrous roots have no dominant segment

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The Function of Root Hairs

• Root hairs are found behind the root cap
• They absorb moisture and minerals which are
  conducted to the larger roots and stem of the
  plant

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Root Hairs
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Root Hairs
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Stems

• Act as channels through which water and
  photosynthetic food products pass.
• Stems may be above or below ground

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Above Ground Stems

• Small Stems carrots and dandelion
• Climbing Stems ivy and pod beans
• Creeping Stems (Stolons) bentgrass

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Below Ground Stems

• Tubers potatoes
• Bulbs tulip and crocus
• Rhizomes zoysiagrass

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Leaves

• Make Food for the Plant

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The Function of the Phloem

• Phloem is active in conducting photosynthetic
  sugars from the leaves to the root

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The Function of the Xylem

• The xylem conducts water and minerals from the
  soil to above ground plant parts

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Monocots and Dicots

• Plants having a single cotyledon (seed leaf) are
  monocots
• Plants having more than one cotyledon
• Student Assignment Compare and contrast the
  difference in seed leafs between corn and green
  beans.

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Types of Leaf Arrangements
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The Function of the Stoma

• Stomas are openings within the epidermis
• They allow air to enter the leaf and water vapor
  and oxygen to move out

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The Function of the Guard Cell

• One of the two epidermal cells in a plant leaf
• Guard Cells enclose a stome

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The Function of the Chloroplasts

• Chloroplasts are plastids containing chlorophyll
• Absorb energy of light
• Separate H (hydrogen) from 02 (oxygen) in a
  molecule of H2 O (water)

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Respiration

• Opposite of Photosynthesis
• Respiration is the release of energy from a plant
  that was captured and stored by photosynthesis
• Equation of Respiration
• C6H1206 6H2O 6O2 6CO2 12H2O energy

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Transpiration

• Transpiration is the upward pull of water started
  by the evaporation of molecules

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Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis is the process by which green
  plants manufacture food
• Light Energy (solar) is converted to chemical
  energy
• Photosynthesis Equation
• 6CO2 6H2O sunlight C6H12O6 6O2

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Flowers

• Protection (sepals are the outer most part of the
  flower that protect its internal parts).
• Pollination (petals attract insects with nectar)
• Fertilization (stamens male, pistil female)

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Parts of Flowers

• Flowers are important in making seeds.
• Flowers can be made up of different parts, but
  there are some parts that are basic equipment.
• The main flower parts are the male part called
  the stamen and the female part called the pistil

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Parts of Flowers

• Other parts of the flower that are important are
  the petals and sepals.
• Petals attract pollinators and are usually the
  reason why we buy and enjoy flowers.
• The sepals are the green petal-like parts at the
  base of the flower.
• Sepals help protect the developing bud.

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Parts of Flowers

• Flowers can have either all male parts, all
  female parts, or a combination.
• Flowers with all male or all female parts are
  called imperfect (cucumbers, pumpkin and melons).
  
• Flowers that have both male and female parts are
  called perfect (roses, lilies, dandelion).

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Parts of Flowers

• A complete flower has a stamen, a pistil, petals,
  and sepals.
• An incomplete flower is missing one of the four
  major parts of the flower, the stamen, pistil,
  petals, or sepals.

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Parts of Flowers

• The stamen has two parts anthers and filaments.
• The anthers carry the pollen.
• These are generally yellow in color.
• Anthers are held up by a thread-like part called
  a filament.

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Parts of Flowers

• The pistil has three parts stigma, style, and
  ovary.
• The stigma is the sticky surface at the top of
  the pistil it traps and holds the pollen.
• The style is the tube-like structure that holds
  up the stigma.
• The style leads down to the ovary that contains
  the ovules.

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Field Crops
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Cotton

• Fabric of History

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The History of Cotton

• Scientists and historians have found shreds of
  cloth or written reference to cotton dating back
  at least seven-thousand years. 
• The oldest discovery was made in a Mexican cave,
  where scientists unearthed bits and pieces of
  cotton bolls and cloth.

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The History of Cotton

• English colonists first cultivated cotton to make
  homespun clothing. Production significantly
  increased when the American Revolution cut off
  supplies of European cloth, but the real
  expansion of production came with the rising
  demand for raw cotton from the British textile
  industry. This led to the development of an
  efficient cotton gin as a tool for removing seeds
  from cotton fibers in 1793.
• The breeding of superior strains from Mexican
  cotton and the opening of western lands further
  expanded production.

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Revolutionizing the Cotton Industry

• Eli Whitney saw the need for a faster means of
  removing the lint (cotton fibers) from the seed. 
  In 1793, he patented a machine known as the
  cotton gin. 
• This invention revolutionized the way lint was
  separated from the seed.  Up to that time, for
  centuries, the separation process had all been
  done by hand. 
• With Whitney's gin, short for the word engine,
  lint volume was increased for each worker from 1
  lb. To 50 lbs. per day.

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The Cotton Belt

• The Cotton Belt spans the southern half of the
  Unites States, from Virginia to California.
• Cotton is grown in 17 states and is a major crop
  in 14.

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Economic Impact

• Cotton was, above all, a crucial factor in the
  nation's economic development.
• Production rose from 2 million pounds in 1791 to
  a billion pounds in 1860 by 1840, the United
  States was producing over 60 percent of the
  world's cotton.
• The economic boom in the cotton South attracted
  migrants, built up wealth among the free
  inhabitants, encouraged capitalization of
  investments like railroads, and facilitated
  territorial expansion.

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Economic Impact

• The crop comprised more than half the total value
  of domestic exports in the period 1815-1860, and
  in 1860, earnings from cotton paid for 60 percent
  of all imports.
• Cotton also built up domestic capital, attracted
  foreign investment, and contributed to the
  industrial growth of the North.

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Economical Impact

• Slavery contributed, but was not essential in the
  success of cotton production.

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Economical Impact

• By the 1830s, the South's political
  economyresting on cotton and slaveswas a key
  factor in sectional tension between North and
  South.
• Although slavery was not necessary for growing
  cotton (three-quarters of southern whites held no
  slaves, and much of the South's cotton was
  produced by free workers), southern whites
  assumed that slavery was an efficient method of
  increasing production, and they wanted to take
  slaves wherever cotton might be grown.

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Economical Impact

• Out of the disarray that followed emancipation,
  southern landowners constructed new forms of
  servitudetenantry and sharecropping. These
  coercive institutions (involving the extension of
  goods or credit to rural inhabitants in exchange
  for their labor) controlled poor whites as well
  as newly freed blacks.
• Rural poverty, overproduction, and the resulting
  low prices for cotton all contributed to the
  South's postwar stagnation. The region's woes
  increased after 1894 with the arrival of the boll
  weevil, which savaged cotton crops.

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Pesticides

• The cotton crop is a major consumer of
  pesticides, with generally around 10 of the
  end-user market value, which in 1994 amounted to
  US2,550 million
• The most important insecticides, those with a
  minimum 5 share of the market, were
  deltamethrin, (12), lambda-cyhalothrin (9),
  monocrotophos (9), alpha-cypermethrin (8),
  chlorpyriphos-ethyl (7), esfenvalerate (7),
  methamidophos (6) and dimethoate (5).
• The other 46 of the market is dispersed between
  insecticides such as azinphos-methyl, diazinon,
  dimethoate, EPN, malathion, parathion,
  phosphamidon, quinalphos, bifenthrin,
  beta-cyfluthrin, esfenvalerate, tralomethrin,
  aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuran, fenobucarb,
  methomyl and thiodicarb

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Fertilization Requirements

• More than any other nutrient, N can increase or
  decrease yields of cotton. Apply too little N,
  and yields drop sharply.
• The recommended rate of N ranges from 50 to 70
  pounds N per acre.
• The best rate for a particular field depends on
  soil texture, the previous crop, expected
  rainfall patterns or irrigation, and grower
  experience in that field.

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Fertilization Requirements

• Potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) are two
  macronutrients required for cotton production.
• Cotton yield or quality can be impacted if
  sufficient amounts of either nutrient are not
  available for plant uptake.
• Potassium plays a pivotal role in lint
  development and P is essential for energy
  transfer within the cotton plant.

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Harvesting Cotton
White or Yellow Bloom
Pink Bloom
Boll Beginning to Open
Fully Open Boll
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Harvesting Cotton

• Approximately 45-60 days after planting,
  depending on temperature, the cotton begins to
  bloom.
• Cotton first produces a small square, which
  produces a white bloom.
• The white bloom turns pink after one day and then
  falls off as the bolls develop.
• Approximately 30 days (again depending on
  temperature) after bloom, the boll is mature but
  not open.
• Under normal weather patterns, an open boll ready
  for harvest is produced approximately 65 days
  after bloom.

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Crop Rotation

• A rotation crop that is profitable in one area
  may be economically unsuitable in another, so
  rotation recommendations must be evaluated with
  due consideration of local experience.
• Producers estimated their cotton lint yields
  increased from 150-400 pounds per acre the first
  year following corn crop rotation.
• Nitrogen fertilizer applications were reduced by
  25 pounds nitrogen per acre for cotton following
  soybeans and 20 pounds per acre following corn.

103
Soybeans
104
History

• The soybean is one of the oldest cultivated
  crops.
• Soybeans originated and were first grown in
  northeastern China. The first record dates back
  to 2838 BC.
• Soybeans first appeared in Europe in the 17th
  century, and in the United States in 1804.

105
History

• Little attention was given to soybean as a crop
  until 1898 when the USDA imported a large number
  of varieties for research.
• Since that time, there has been rapid expansion
  in soybean production, particularly since 1920.
• Most soybeans were grown in the South prior to
  1924, then it began to assume importance in the
  Corn Belt.

106
Uses of Soybeans

• Soybean meal is used as a high-protein supplement
  in mixed feed rations for livestock. It is also
  used in plastics, glue, and water paints.
• Soybean oil is used in the production of
  candles, biodiesel, disinfectants, electric
  insulation, enamels, insecticides, linoleum, ink,
  varnish, and soap.
• For consumption purposes, soybean is used in
  vegetable oil, soy milk and curd, various soy
  sauces, fermented products, and bean sprouts.

107
Economic Importance

• Soybean is the fourth largest crop in the world
  grown on an average of 194 million acres in
  2000-2003. World production averaged about 6.5
  billion bushels or 34 bushels per acre.
• The United States is the world leader in
  soybeans, producing over 1/3 of the global
  supply.
• Other major soybean-producing countries are
  Brazil, Argentina, China, and India.

108
World Production 2001

109
Economic Importance in the US

• In 2000-2003, soybean ranked 1st in area among US
  crops with about 73 million acres.
• Production averaged about 2.7 billion bushels
  with an average yield of about 37 bushels per
  acre.
• Soybean is growing in popularity faster than any
  other crop. US production has rose from less
  than 5 million bushels in 1924, to 1.5 billion
  bushels in 1973, to 2.4 billion bushels in 2003.
• The leading states in soybean production are
  Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Indiana, and Nebraska.

110
Production in Arkansas

• Arkansas ranks 8th in US production.
• Grown in over 50 of the states 75
  counties, but most is concentrated in the eastern
  part.

111
Varieties

• Over 10,000 varieties worldwide.
• The most common early maturing varieties are
  Hutheson, DynaGrow 3796, Brim, and Bryan. They
  produce high yields on productive soil.
• The most common late maturing varieties are
  Haskell, DP 3733, NKS 83-30, and Cook. They
  produce high yields and are widely accepted.
• Other new varieties such as Sencor, Lexone,
  Canopy, Roundup Ready, STS, Synchrony, and
  Pinnacle express tolerance to herbicides.

112
Adaptations

• The climatic requirements for soybean are about
  the same as those for corn.
• Soybean will withstand short periods or drought
  after the plants are well established.
• In general, combinations of high temperature and
  low precipitation are unfavorable. Soybean seed
  produced under high-temperature conditions tend
  to be low in oil and oil quality.
• Soybean is sensitive to over irrigation, poor
  soil drainage can reduce yields.
• A average midsummer temperature of 75 to 77
  degrees F is optimum for all varieties. Lower
  temperatures tend to delay flowering.

113
Adaptations

• Soybean is less susceptible to frost injury than
  corn. Light frosts have little effect on the
  plants when they are young or nearly mature. The
  minimum temperature for growth is about 50
  degrees F. At least 90 frost-free days are
  needed to adequately mature the crop.
• Soybean grows on nearly all types of soil, but it
  is especially productive on fertile loams. It is
  better adapted to low fertility soils than corn,
  provided the proper nitrogen-fixing bacteria are
  present. It will also grow on soils that are too
  acidic for alfalfa and red clover.

114
Fertilizer Recommendations

• A soil test should be done to determine the needs
  of soybeans and other crops in the rotation.
• The optimum pH level is 6.0 to 6.5, but may
  tolerate soil pH as low as 5.2.
• A nitrogen deficiency requires about 20 lb/acre.
  Soil very low in phosphorus requires P2O5 at a
  rate of 20 to 40 lb/acre.
• Potassium application is recommended where soil
  tests indicate less than 200 to 250 lb/acre of
  K2O.
• Sulfur or certain micronutrients are not applied
  to soybean fields except on strongly weathered,
  coarse-textured alkaline or organic soils.

115
Rotation

• Soybean is often grown in short rotations with
  corn, cotton, and small grains. As a full-season
  crop, it can occupy any place in a rotation where
  corn is used.
• Soybean usually performs best when following a
  grass crop such as corn or grain sorghum. Yields
  of soybean are 5 to 15 higher following corn due
  primarily to less disease.
• Rotation should not follow wheat, as yields will
  be about 15 to 39 lower because of the shorter
  growing season.

116
Pest Management

• The three types of insect pests found in soybeans
  are
• 1. Foliage feeders, which comprise the
  biggest group of insect pests,2. Pod feeders,
  which are probably the most detrimental to yield,
  and3. Stem, root and seedling feeders, which are
  often the hardest to sample and are not detected
  until after they have caused damage.
• The best controlled with cultural and biological
  practices. Insecticides should be used as a last
  resort only.

117
Disease Management

• Most common diseases in soybeans are
• -Soybean Rust
• -Stem Canker
• -Sudden Death Syndrome
• -Charcoal Rot
• -Phytophthora Root Rot
• -Pod and Stem Blight
• -Southern Blight

118
Disease Management

• Correct disease identification is by far the
  single most important disease management
  strategy.
• Good crop management promotes plant health and
  vigorous growth which enable the soybean plant to
  be more tolerant to most disease- causing
  organisms and often escape yield-limiting damage.
• Planting resistant soybean varieties is the most
  efficient and least expensive disease management
  practice.
• Foliar fungicides do not increase soybean yields,
  but they may protect your crop against yield loss
  and may improve seed quality.

119
Harvest

• Optimum planting dates for soybeans are May 5
  through July 5, although early maturing varieties
  can be planted prior to those dates in southern
  states. Soybeans are usually harvested between
  Oct. 15 and Nov. 20.
• Soybean for seed is harvested most efficiently
  when the moisture content of the seeds drops to
  12. Later harvesting increases shattering
  losses, as well as splitting of the overly dry
  beans in threshing. The minimized split beans,
  the cylinder speed of the combine should be
  operated at 300 to 450 revolutions per minute.
• Soybean at 13 moisture can be combined directly
  without windrowing and stored without drying.

120
Harvest

• Soybean can be cut for hay anytime from pod
  formation until the leaves begin to fall.
• The best quality of hay is obtained when the
  seeds are about half developed.
• Soybean is difficult to cure because the thick
  stems dry out slowly. Very few soybean fields
  are cut for hay except after a disaster that
  prevents the crop from maturity.

121
Storage

• Seeds should be stored at no more than 13
  moisture. If the crop will be stored for more
  than one year, moisture should be 11 or less.
• When artificially dried in storage, air
  temperatures should be 130 to 140 degrees F.
• Seeds should not be stirred during drying to
  avoid cracking the seed coat.
• Aeration is necessary to maintain seed
  temperature at 35 to 40 degrees F in winter and
  40 to 60 degrees F in summer.
• Soybean that will be planted should not be stored
  more than one year because of germination loss
  during storage.

122

123

124
Mustard

• The oldest Condiment

125
HISTORY OF MUSTARD

• One of the first domesticated crops
• Economic value resulted in its wide dispersal
• Grown as a herb in Asia, North Africa, Europe
  for thousands of years
• In about 1300, the name mustard was given to
  the condiment made by mixing mustum, which is
  fermented grape juice, with ground mustard.

126
HISTORY OF MUSTARD

• The French people are the largest consumers of
  mustard.
• World-wide people consume about 1.5 lbs per year.
• Today, French law regulates the ingredients in
  mustard.
• Example Dijon mustard may only be made of brown
  seed

127
Economic Importance

• Mustard has been a major specialty crop in North
  America since supplies from Western Europe were
  interrupted by WWII.
• California and Montana were major production
  areas until early 1950s.
• Production of mustard in the Upper Midwest began
  in the 1960s.

128
Economic Importance

• Mustard is currently grown on approximately
  250,000 acres annually in U.S.
• North Dakota has the largest share of production
  in the U.S.
• Canadian production increased for 20 years until
  it peaked in mid 1980s.
• The French buy approx. 70 of the annual Canadian
  production.
• Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan currently
  grow a large scale of the worlds mustard.

129
Mustard Varieties

• Most common mustards grown in U.S. are Yellow,
  Brown, and Oriental.
• Yellow mustard comprises about 90 of the crop
  grown in the Upper Midwest.
• Brown and Oriental mustards are grown on limited
  acres and produced in rotation with small grains.

130
Varieties of Mustard
131
Adaptations

• Mustard is a cool season crop that can be grown
  in a short season.
• Yellow mustard usually matures in 80-85 days and
  Brown and Oriental in 90-95 days.
• Seedlings are somewhat tolerant to frost after
  emergence, but severe frost can destroy entire
  crop.
• Brown and Oriental mustards have partial drought
  tolerance between that of wheat and rapeseed.
• Moisture stress caused by hot, dry conditions
  during flowering frequently causes lower yields.

132
Adaptations

• Mustard can be raised on variable soil types with
  good drainage, but is best adapted to fertile,
  well-drained, loamy soils.
• Soils prone to crusting prior to seedling
  emergence can cause problems.
• This crop will not tolerate waterlogged soils
  since growth will be stunted.
• Dry sand and dry, sandy loam soils should be
  avoided.

133
Mustard Growth Habit

• Seedlings emerge rapidly, but then usually grow
  slowly.
• Plants cover the ground in 4 to 5 days with
  favorable moisture and temperature conditions.
• Flower buds are visible about 5 weeks after
  emergence.
• Yellow flowers begin to appear 7 to 10 days later
  and continue blooming for a longer period with
  adequate water supply.
• A longer flowering period increases yield
  potential

134
Mustard Plant
135
Crop Rotations

• A small grain crop following mustard in the
  rotation will usually yield more than when
  following continuous small grain.
• Mustard has several of the same diseases and
  insect pests as flax, canola, sweet clover,
  soybeans, field peas, and sunflowers and should
  be avoided in the same rotation as mustard.
• Mustard should be in rotation with cereal grains
  since they do not have common pest and diseases.

136
Fertilizer Recommendations

• Soil test should be used to determine nutrient
  need.
• Optimal soil test levels are about 15 to 20 ppm
  Bray P, and 80 to 100 ppm K. At these levels a
  rate of about 45 lbs/acre P2O5 and 80 lb/acre
  K2O.
• When fertilizer is banded, the bands should be
  placed below and to the side of the seed furrow.
• Mustard responds well to nitrogen additions with
  optimum yields occurring at about 100 to 120
  lbs/acre N.

137
Weed Control

• Weeds can greatly reduce mustard yields.
• Good weed control is based on preparation of a
  clean field and shallow seeding to encourage
  quick emergence.
• Control of perennial weeds such as Canadian
  thistle, field bindweed, and quick grass should
  be started in the fall or prior to planting in
  the spring.
• You may control these weeds by applying Roundup
  before the last killing frost in the fall.
• Mustard is sensitive to broadleaf herbicides like
  2,4-D and MCPA and should be avoided if possible.

138
Pest Control

• Growers should monitor fields closely to detect
  insect problems that can cause high yield losses.
• Flea Beetles and caterpillars of the diamondback
  moth are the most serious pest.
• Malathion EC and Sevin are the most effective in
  killing Flea Beetles and caterpillars if used
  correctly.
• Consult local Extension bulletins for further
  information on the control of other pest.

139
Harvesting

• When harvesting mustard the pod should not be
  open. This causes shattering and great yield
  losses.
• Yellow mustard is a harder seed and may be
  combined if the crop has matured uniformly and is
  free from green weeds. If crop is weedy or uneven
  it should be swathed.
• When crop is being swathed the seed has turned
  yellow-green and should be cut just beneath the
  head of the lowest seed pod.

140
Harvesting

• Brown and Oriental varieties shatter more readily
  and therefore, need to be swathed.
• Swathing should begin when leaves drop and crop
  has turned from green to yellow or brown.
• About 75 have reached maturity when turned
  yellow or brown. The green seed usually will turn
  yellow or brown in the swath before combining.

141
Harvesting

• Swathing should be done under conditions of high
  humidity and dew on the pods. This keeps seeds
  from shattering.
• The combine should be adjusted so seeds are
  threshed at lowest cylinder speed, which 600
  RPMs.
• Cylinder speed may need to be adjusted during the
  day as crop moisture content may vary.

142
Storage

• Make sure bin is free of holes and cracks!
• When mustard seed reaches a moisture content of
  10 or less it can be safely stored.
• Air temperatures for seed drying should not
  exceed 150F, and seed temperature should be
  below 120F.
• Seed must be handled carefully to prevent
  cracking. If this happens it can be a costly
  dockage to the farmer.

143
Sugarbeet
144
History

• Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris) growing for sucrose
  production became successful in the United States
  starting about 1870.
• Earlier attempts at sugarbeet production were not
  totally successful.
• Once a viable industry was established,
  sugarbeets were grown in 26 states.

145
History

• About 1,400,000 acres were produced in 14 states
  in 1990.
• Russia leads worldwide production of sugarbeets
  with nearly 8,500,000 acres.

146
Uses

• Sugarbeets are used primarily for production of
  sucrose, a high energy pure food.
• Sugarbeet pulp and molasses are processing
  by-products widely used as feed supplements for
  livestock.
• These products provide required fiber in rations
  and increase the palatability of feeds.

147
Growth Habits

• Sugarbeet is a biennial plant which was developed
  in Europe in the 18th century from white fodder
  beets.
• Sugar reserves are stored in the sugarbeet root
  during the first growing season for an energy
  source during overwintering.
• The roots are harvested for sugar at the end of
  the first growing season.

148
Growth Habits

• The plant has a taproot system
  that utilizes water
  and soil nutrients
  to depths of 5 to 8 ft.

149
Economic Importance

• Total direct impacts from sugarbeet production in
  Minnesota and North Dakota were estimated to be
  676 per acre or 374.6 million.
• In 1998, sugarbeets generated a gross farm
  income of approximately 200 million, or slightly
  more than 6 of gross farm receipts in Idaho.

150
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151
Varieties

• American Crystal Sugar Company, Moorhead,
  Minnesota conducts the most comprehensive variety
  trials in the United States.
• These evaluations are used to establish a list of
  approved varieties which insures the use of the
  most productive varieties to maximize returns to
  the growers and sugar companies.

152
Crop Rotation

• Yields and quality usually are highest when
  sugarbeets follow barley or wheat in the crop
  rotation.
• Three years research in Minnesota indicated
  sugarbeet yielded significantly less when
  following soybeans versus barley in rotation.

153
Harvesting

• Sugarbeets are harvested in late September and
  October.
• A mechanical defoliator is used to remove all
  the foliage from the beet root prior to lifting.
• The harvesters remove most of the soil from the
  beets prior to loading them on trucks.

154
Harvesting
155
Sweet Clover
156
History

• White and yellow sweet clover are native to the
  Mediterranean region, central Europe, and Asia.
• They were brought to the United States in the
  1600s as a forage crop for livestock and for
  honey production.
• They are now found in all 50 states and are used
  as a soil builder because of their nitrogen
  fixing capability. They are also planted as a
  wildlife cover.

157
Varieties

• Generally, the cultivated forms of sweet clover
  are biennial however, there are both annual and
  biennial types.
• In the central United States, the biennial types
  are most important.
• The two principal types are white sweet clover
  and yellow sweet clover

158
Varieties

• White blossom sweet clover includes the varieties
  Denta and Polara
• The most common yellow blossoms of sweet clover
  include Madrid, Goldtop, and Yukon.
• Yellow sweet clover is earlier, fine stemmed,
  usually less productive for forage and more
  dependable for seed that white sweet clover.

159
White and yellow sweet clover
160
Uses and Management

• Sweet clover may be used for hay or pasture or as
  a plow-down crop.
• By far its greatest use and adaptation is as a
  pasture- and soil-improving crop
• No other legume will provide as much grazing as
  sweet clover during the spring and summer of its
  second year

161
Uses and Management

• The amount of grazing it will furnish in its
  seeding year depends upon its companion crop
• If seeded with a small grain that is harvested
  for grain, little forage production can be
  expected.
• If the grain is pastured or otherwise seeded with
  less competition, some first year pasturage can
  be expected.
• In general, it can be pastured once it reaches a
  height of 12 to 14 inches if close grazing is
  avoided

162
Uses and Management

• Sweet clover should not be grazed during
  September and early October when it is producing
  winter root reserves.
• Sweet clover is not as palatable as most other
  legumes because of its high coumerin content.
• Livestock soon get used to its taste and consume
  it readily. There is less danger from bloat with
  sweet clover than with alfalfa, red clover, or
  alsike, but some possibility does ecist

163
Uses and Management

• As a soil-improving crop, sweet clover probably
  has no equal. It has a deep taproot system that
  penetrates the subsoil, produces a large amount
  of growth that can be quickly broken down and
  converted to organic matter and fixes high levels
  of nitrogen on heavy clay soils.
• Sweet clover is also attractive to pollinating
  insects such as honeybees and assists in the
  production of honey and honey by-products.

164
The  honey is white or nearly white.   Nectar is
secreted freely and if in the vicinity of a sweet
clover field, the aroma of the plant will surely
get your attention.   In the 1940's and 50's,
Northwest Ohio, sweet clover was grown for seed
and fields of it could be seen for miles.  It was
not unusual for a hive of honey bees to produce
200 pounds of honey from clover alone.
165
Pest Management

• Sweet clover may be attacked by a number of
  diseases including damping-off, root rot and
  crown rot, stem rots and leaf diseases.
• The incidences of these diseases are usually
  light on forage stands and slightly heavier on
  seed stands. While these diseases damage the
  plant and negatively influence productivity, they
  are not normally considered a serious problem

166
Pest Management

• The sweet clover weevil is this crops main pest.
• The weevil chews the leaves of seedlings or
  second-year stands in the spring and, to a lesser
  extent, in late summer.
• Damage is likely to be most severe in years when
  growth is slow.
• The Weevil can be controlled through the use of
  insecticides, by tilling of second-year fields as
  soon as harvested, and by locating new stands as
  far as possible from established fields of sweet
  clover.

167
Adaptations

• Sweet clover has an extreme range of adaptation
• About the only consistent requirement is one of
  high pH. Sweet clover needs a high pH of about
  6.0 or higher for proper nodulation to occur. It
  has a higher calcium requirement as well.
• Sweet clover is able to obtain phosphorus from
  relatively unavailable soil phosphates and will
  grow on soils where alfalfa, red clover, or
  ladino will fail.
• Except for its high lime requirements, it is
  similar to lespedeza, which tolerates very low
  fertility conditions.

168
Harvesting

• Sweet clover normally sets and abundance of seed.
  However, the somewhat indeterminate habitat of
  growth and the lose attachment of the mature pods
  on the rachis (stem), result in heavy loss of
  ripe pods before and during harvest.
• Highest yields of good quality seed are obtained
  by windrowing the crop when 50 to 60 percent of
  the pods have turned brown, black or white.
• Cutting should be done when the plants are tough
  damp from dew or rain.
• After a brief period of curing (several days to a
  week), the windrow is picked up and threshed. Use
  a low cylinder speed and wide clearance of
  concaves to avoid shelled or broken seed

169
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170
Buckwheat
171
History

• Buckwheat is a grain that has been eaten for
  hundreds of years in the Far East. China, Japan,
  Korea, and other Asian countries have long
  enjoyed noodles made from buckwheat flour.
• Buckwheat can also be used for a variety of baked
  products, including pancakes, breads, muffins,
  crackers, bagels, cookies, and tortillas among
  others .

172

• Buckwheat (Fagopyrum sagittatum Gilib) has been
  grown in America since colonial days, and the
  crop once was common on farms in the northeastern
  and north central United States.
• Production reached a peak in 1866 at which time
  the grain was a common livestock-feed and was in
  demand for making flour. By the mid 1960's the
  acreage had declined to about 50,000 acres.

173
Varieties

• Because little breeding work has been done on
  buckwheat, there are only a handful of varieties
  that are grown in the United States.
• Dr. Harold Penn State University did much of the
  variety improvement work in the 1960's to 1980's

174

• Mancan Large-seeded diploid variety. Has low
  test weight but good market acceptability.
  Released by Agriculture Canada and licensed in
  1974.
• Manor Large-seeded diploid variety. Has low test
  weight but good market acceptability. Released by
  Agriculture Canada and licensed in 1980.
  Production of certified seed is limited to
  Canada.

175
Adaptations

• Buckwheat grows best where the climate is moist
  and cool. It can be grown rather far north and at
  high altitudes, because its growing period is
  short (10 to 12 weeks) and its heat requirements
  for development are low.
• The crop is extremely sensitive to unfavorable
  weather conditions and is killed quickly by
  freezing temperatures both in the spring and
  fall. High temperatures and dry weather at
  blooming time may cause blasting of flowers and
  prevent seed formation.

176

• Generally, buckwheat seeding is timed so that the
  plants will bloom and set seed when hot, dry
  weather is over. Often seeding is delayed until
  three months prior to the first killing frost in
  the fall.
• Buckwheat grows on a wide range of soil types and
  fertility levels. It produces a better crop than
  other grains on infertile, poorly drained soils
  if the climate is moist and cool.
• Buckwheat has higher tolerance to soil acidity
  than any other grain crop. It is best suited to
  light to medium textured, well-drained soils such
  as sandy loams, loams and silt loams. It does not
  grow well in heavy, wet soils or in soils that
  contain high levels of limestone.

177
Fertilizer

• Buckwheat has a modest feeding capacity compared
  to most other grains, and if fertilizer is not
  applied, the removal of nutrients by a buckwheat
  crop may have a depressing effect on the yield of
  the following crop.
• Typical nutrient removals by the grain for a 1200
  lb/a crop are 9 lb/a N, 3 lb/a P2O5 and 12 lb/a
  K2O.

178
Rotation

• Serious diseases affecting other dicot field
  crops have not been important in buckwheat
  therefore the volunteer plant problem is the main
  problem in crop sequences.
• Volunteer sunflower, rapeseed, mustard, and corn
  can be serious weeds in buckwheat planted before
  June 15.
• Volunteer buckwheat can be a problem in crops
  following buckwheat, but herbicides will control
  these in most crops.

179
Prepartion

• A firm seedbed is best for successful buckwheat
  production because of its relatively small seed
  size and its shallow root system.
• A firm seedbed facilitates absorption of
  nutrients essential for rapid growth, and tends
  to reduce losses from drought.
• If soil has been plowed for a previous crop
  which has failed, only disking or harrowing may
  be required..

180
Harvesting

• The best practice is to direct combine when the
  maximum number of seeds have matured (75 of seed
  brown or black) and the plants have lost most of
  their leaves.
• When immature plants are harvested, green seeds
  and moist fragments of the plants may cause
  difficulties in storing the grain.
• However, considerable grain loss from shattering
  may occur if the crop is left standing,
  especially after a killing frost.

181

• Cylinder speed (about 650 RPM) and cylinder
  concave clearance (1/8-1/2 in.) of the combine
  should be set to prevent excessive cracking and
  breaking of the grain. Losses and broken kernels
  should be checked to refine combine adjustments.
• Proper selection of the sieves and adjustment of
  the chaffer and air settings are also important
  to insure minimal losses. Sieve openings of 1/4
  to 3/8 in. are suggest