Title: The Woman Everybody Loved and the Man Who Hated Her
1Chapter 12
Groups
2Have you ever done something in a crowd youd
never have done alone?
- If you had to move furniture, would you work
better in a group, or alone? - What if you were writing a term paper?
- Have you ever had a bad supervisor?
- What differentiated that person from a good
supervisor?
3Chapter Outline
- The Nature of Groups
- Goals of Belonging to Groups
- Getting Things Done
- Making Accurate Decisions
- Gaining Positions of Leadership
4The Nature of Groups
- Mere Presence of Others and Social Facilitation
- Crowds and Deindividuation
- Real Groups
- Why Do People Belong to Groups?
5The Nature of Groups
- Group -
- Two or more people who influence each other.
- Collections of individuals become increasingly
group like when they - Are interdependent
- Share a common identity
- Have a group structure
6Mere Presence of Others and Social Facilitation
- In 1897, Norman Triplett noticed that bicycle
racers always turned in better times in
competition than alone. - Same result when he asked children to wind
fishing reels as quickly as possible.
7Mere Presence of Others and Social Facilitation
- In 1965, Robert Zajonc proposed that the presence
of others increases physiological arousal. - This arousal boosts the probability of dominant
responses (familiar, well-learned behaviors).
8Mere Presence of Others and Social Facilitation
- If a task requires a simple or well-learned
response (like pedaling a bike), then the
presence of others helps us. - But if we are asked to do something novel or
complex (like playing a difficult piece of
music), then others can actually hurt our
performance.
9Presence of Others
Physiological Arousal
On difficult or complex tasks dominant response
is wrong
On well-mastered or simple tasks dominant
response is right
Dominant Responses (well-mastered task)
Dominant Responses
Dominant Responses
Improved Performance
Impaired Performance
10Mere Presence of Others and Social Facilitation
- When other people are explicitly evaluating our
performance, arousal increases (Seta Seta,
1992). - Presence of other people can also distract us,
breaking the concentration required for a complex
task (Baron, 1986).
11Crowds and Deindividuation
- Deindividuation -
- The process of losing ones sense of personal
identity, which - makes it easier to behave in ways inconsistent
with ones normal values. - Example Anonymous children in Halloween costumes
stole more from a candy jar (Beaman et al., 1979)
12Real Groups
- Real groups (e.g., sororities) are distinguished
from aggregations (e.g., crowds of strangers on
the street) by - Interdependence Group members need each other to
reach shared goals. - Group identity Individuals perceive themselves
as belonging together. - Group structure
13Group Structure
- Roles -
- Expectations held by group members for how
members in particular positions ought to behave.
14Group Structure
- Status Hierarchy -
- A ranking of group members by their power and
influence over other members.
15Group Structure
- Communication network -
- The pattern of information flow through a group.
- Example An announcement from the CEO of ACME
Artichoke Distributors may flow first to top
managers, then to local supervisors, then to
rank-and-file workers.
16Group Structure
- Cohesiveness -
- The strength of the bonds among group members.
- Interpersonal cohesiveness Enjoyment of one
anothers company. - Task cohesiveness Commitment to the groups
task.
17Why Do People Belong To Groups?
- To Get Things Done
- To Make Accurate Decisions
- To Gain Positions of Leadership
18Getting Things Done
19Lightening The Load, Dividing the Labor
Getting Things Done
- In groups, we can do things that would be very
difficult if we were alone. - In groups, people can divide the labor and
thereby finish a task more quickly and
efficiently.
20Focus on Social Dysfunction The Social Disease
of Social Loafing
Getting Things Done
- Social loafing -
- Reducing ones efforts when in a group.
- People loaf less when
- Personal efforts are identifiable
- The task is meaningful and important
- Working with friends vs. strangers
- They have a collectivist orientation
21Getting Things Done
Expectations of Individual Failure and Group
Success
Current Needs
When are Groups Productive?
22Expectations of Individual Failure and Group
Success
Getting Things Done
- People join groups when they believe that they
would fail on their own. - In one study, men were expected to compete on
- Stereotypically masculine tasks (like changing
oil or fixing a shed) - Or stereotypically feminine tasks (like taking a
test on flowers)
23Expectations of Individual Failure and Group
Success
Getting Things Done
- Men were less confident in their abilities to
succeed on the stereotypically feminine tasks
24Current Needs
Getting Things Done
- Performance groups emerge to fill current needs
in society - Examples Trade guilds, unions, NAACP, Sierra
Club.
25When Are Groups Most Productive?
Getting Things Done
- The answer depends on
- Who is in the group?
- How big is the group?
- What type of task are they working on?
26Who Should Be in The Group?
Getting Things Done
- Personality of the group member should be matched
to type of task. - Teams usually require at least one person who is
ambitious, one who is creative, and one who is
cooperative.
27How Big Should The Group Be?
Getting Things Done
- Depends on type of task
- Additive task - A job in which each member
performs the same activities. - Group success determined by sum of all member
contributions
28How Big Should The Group Be?
Getting Things Done
- Disjunctive task - Job in which groups product
is selected from just one members performance. - Group activity thus determined by performance of
most successful member.
29How Big Should The Group Be?
Getting Things Done
- Conjunctive task - Job in which group succeeds
only if each member performs successfully. - Group activity thus limited by performance of
least competent member. - More members MAY hurt performance.
30Is Diversity Valuable?
Getting Things Done
- Heterogeneous groups do better on
- Disjunctive tasks, in which only one person is
needed to get the right answer.
31Cultural Diversity and Group Performance
Getting Things Done
- Cultural diverse groups perform better on tasks
where different cultural backgrounds can help - Example generating ideas about encouraging
tourism (McLeod Lobel, 1992) - But intergroup prejudice can lead to
communication problems and low cohesion, at least
at first
32Cultural Diversity and Group Performance
Getting Things Done
- In one study, researchers created four and five
member teams to solve problems in an upper-level
management course.
- Teams were either
- Homogenous (all white), or
- Ethnically diverse
33Watson, Kumar, Michaelson, 1993
At first, performance was worse in ethnically
diverse groups, who got along less well than
homogenous groups
5
4
OVERALL GROUP PERFORMANCE
3
2
Task 1 (week 1)
34Watson, Kumar, Michaelson, 1993
By the end of the semester, though, diverse
groups were performing as well as homogenous ones
5
4
OVERALL GROUP PERFORMANCE
3
2
Task 1 (week 1)
Task 2 (week 9)
Task 3 (week 13)
Task 4 (week 17)
35Making Accurate Decisions
36Making Accurate Decisions
- Groups that share information can make more
informed decisions. - Transactive memory - A group memory system made
up of - 1. Knowledge held by individual group members
- 2. Communication network for sharing this
information.
37Making Accurate Decisions
The Need to Know
Uncertain Circumstances
Discussion and Decision Making
38The Need to Know
Making Accurate Decisions
- Individuals with a thirst for knowledge can fill
it in groups. - People facing life-long illness may seek a
support group for information. - Gay men with HIV stopped attending support
meetings when group stopped supplying information
(Sandstrom, 1996)
39Uncertain Circumstances
Making Accurate Decisions
- Uncertainty increases the desire to be with
others in similar circumstances (Kirkpatrick
Shaver, 1988) - Hospital patients awaiting a serious medical
procedure want to wait with other patients who
have already undergone the procedure (Kulik,
Mahler, Earnest, 1994)
40Discussion and Decision Making
Making Accurate Decisions
When group discussion leads members to make
decisions that are more extremely on the side of
the issue that the group initially favored.
41Discussion and Decision Making
Making Accurate Decisions
- Imagine you were considering the pros and cons of
going to grad school, and you talked it over with
two groups - Your family Who was initially slightly opposed
to the idea - Your fellow students Who were initially slightly
favorable - After discussion within each group
42Definite GO
Attitude Towards Grad School
Unsure
Definite NO (Get A Job!)
Before Group Discussion
After Group Discussion
43Discussion and Decision Making
Making Accurate Decisions
Why do groups polarize after discussion? Persuasiv
e arguments With even a slight bias in one
direction, youll hear more favorable arguments
on that side. Social comparison When members
realize the group is leaning in one direction,
they may seek acceptance by moving further in
that direction.
44Groupthink -
Making Accurate Decisions
A style of group decision making characterized by
a greater desire among group members to get along
and agree with one another than to generate and
critically evaluate alternative viewpoints and
positions. Can cause groups to lose benefits of
group discussion.
45Group characteristics Directive
Leadership Interpersonal Cohesiveness Isolation
from Outside Influences
46Group characteristics Directive
Leadership Interpersonal Cohesiveness Isolation
from Outside Influences
Groupthink Desire to Seek Agreement and Group
Cohesion
47Group characteristics Directive
Leadership Interpersonal Cohesiveness Isolation
from Outside Influences
Groupthink Desire to Seek Agreement and Group
Collegiality
Psychological State of Group Members Perceived
Pressure to Conform to Leaders Perspective and
Censor Own Views Perceived Need to Protect Leader
from Contrary Views Illusions of Invulnerability
and Of Outsiders as Inferior
48Group characteristics Directive
Leadership Interpersonal Cohesiveness Isolation
from Outside Influences
Groupthink Desire to Seek Agreement and Group
Collegiality
Psychological State of Group Members Perceived
Pressure to Conform to Leaders Perspective and
Censor Own Views Perceived Need to Protect Leader
from Contrary Views Illusions of Invulnerability
and Of Outsiders as Inferior
Defective Discussion Processes Incomplete Survey
of Objectives and Alternatives Failure to
Consider Negative Features of Chosen
Alternative Failure To Design Contingency Plans
if Chosen Alternative Fails
49Group characteristics Directive
Leadership Interpersonal Cohesiveness Isolation
from Outside Influences
Groupthink Desire to Seek Agreement and Group
Collegiality
Psychological State of Group Members Perceived
Pressure to Conform to Leaders Perspective and
Censor Own Views Perceived Need to Protect Leader
from Contrary Views Illusions of Invulnerability
and Of Outsiders as Inferior
Defective Discussion Processes Incomplete Survey
of Objectives and Alternatives Failure to
Consider Negative Features of Chosen
Alternative Failure To Design Contingency Plans
if Chosen Alternative Fails
Increased Likelihood of Poor Decision
50Gaining Positions of Leadership
51Gaining Positions of Leadership
Who Wants to Lead?
When Opportunity Knocks
Who Gets to Lead?
When Are Leaders Effective?
52Who Wants to Lead?
Gaining Positions of Leadership
- Need for Power-
- Desire to win prestige, status, and influence
over others. - U.S. presidents high in need for power more
likely to lead country into military conflict
(Winter, 1987)
53Who Wants to Lead?
Gaining Positions of Leadership
- Need for Achievement-
- Desire to do something exceptionally well for its
own sake. - U.S. presidents high in need for achievement more
likely to initiate new legislation, and try out
new approaches to leadership.
54When Opportunity Knocks
Gaining Positions of Leadership
- Voids at the top create possibilities for
motivated individuals to ascend - As groups get larger, more need for leaders to
administer and coordinate.
55When Opportunity Knocks
Gaining Positions of Leadership
- People with more connections are better situated
to move into positions of leadership.
56Who Gets To Lead?
Gaining Positions of Leadership
- People choose leaders who fit their images and
beliefs about leaders
- High expertise
- Self-confidence
- High participation in group
- Tall
- Some image factors (e.g., height) may lead
groups to choose a man over a more competent
woman.
57When are Leaders Effective?
Gaining Positions of Leadership
- Students in one study were assigned to work on
hobbies in groups.
Groups were assigned leaders who were
either Autocratic - told group members what to
do and when to do it (or) Democratic - encouraged
the group to set its own goals
58When are Leaders Effective?
Gaining Positions of Leadership
- Researchers recorded the time students spent
working on the task when the leader was
Present - or Absent
59Autocratic leader
Democratic leader
100
Percentage of Time Working on Task
50
0
Leader Present
- When the leader was there to supervise them,
groups with autocratic leaders spent more time on
task
60Autocratic leader
Democratic leader
100
Percentage of Time Working on Task
50
0
Leader Present
Leader Absent
- But when the leader was absent, groups with an
autocratic leader decreased their efforts
considerably.
61Transformation Leadership-
Gaining Positions of Leadership
- Leadership that changes the motivations,
outlooks, and behaviors of followers,
enabling the group to better reach its goals
62Characteristics of Transformational Leaders
How Leader Manifests It
Idealized Influence or Charisma
Intellectual Stimulation
Inspirational Motivation
Individualized Consideration
63Characteristics of Transformational Leaders
How Leader Manifests It
Communicates a sense of a joint mission in
followers. Expresses dedication to his or her
followers. Is willing to sacrifice his or her
self-gain for the good of the group.
Idealized Influence or Charisma
Intellectual Stimulation
Inspirational Motivation
Individualized Consideration
64Characteristics of Transformational Leaders
How Leader Manifests It
Idealized Influence or Charisma
Creates an openness to new ways of
thinking. Creates a big picture that connects
different views of the problem. Is willing to
entertain even seemingly foolish ideas.
Intellectual Stimulation
Inspirational Motivation
Individualized Consideration
65Characteristics of Transformational Leaders
How Leader Manifests It
Idealized Influence or Charisma
Intellectual Stimulation
Convinces followers that they have the ability to
accomplish more than they previously thought
possible. Sets an example for others to strive
for. Presents an optimistic view of the future
Inspirational Motivation
Individualized Consideration
66Characteristics of Transformational Leaders
How Leader Manifests It
Idealized Influence or Charisma
Intellectual Stimulation
Recognizes individual strengths and
weaknesses. Shows interest in the well-being of
others. Supports workers efforts to better
themselves on the job.
Inspirational Motivation
Individualized Consideration