English Monolingual Lexicography

1
English Monolingual Lexicography

• Patrick Hanks
• formerly Chief Editor,
• Current English Dictionaries,
• Oxford University Press

2
Outline

• The purpose of a monolingual dictionary
• History of English monolingual dictionaries
• Some milestones
• Examples of earlier English lexicography
• Writing definitions and explanations
• Selecting and arranging entries
• Etymologies and word histories

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A brief historical survey of English dictionaries

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4

• R. Cawdrey (1604) A Table alphabeticall
• explains hard words
• S. Johnson (1755) Dictionary
• Citations from literature. Full vocabulary
  coverage.
• N. Webster (1828) American Dictionary of the
  English Language
• A nationalistic adventure. Websters debt to
  Johnson.
• consulting the opinions of some gentlemen in
  whose judgment I had trust (seeking agreement
  on definitions convention)
• J. A. H. Murray et al. (1884-1928) OED
• Historical principles. Interaction with literary,
  medieval and Indo-European scholarship.
• Isaac Funk (1894) Funk and Wagnalls Standard
  Dictionary of the English Language.
• put the most important current definition
  first.
• Merriam Websters Second New International
  Dictionary (1933)
• Monumental. Many discursive, quasi-encyclopedic
  explanations.

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Lexicography is accretive

• One dictionary builds on another.
• William Dwight Witney (1891) The Century
  Dictionary
• neither in meaning nor in form is language to be
  dominated by its past
• Clarence Barnhart (1947) American College
  Dictionary (1947)
• Jess Stein and Laurence Urdang (1966) Random
  House Dictionary
• Patrick Hanks (1971) Hamlyn Dictionary (UK)
• Arthur Delbridge (1981) Macquarie Dictionary
  (Australia)
• All these dictionaries attempt to put the modern
  meaning first.
• (Without corpus evidence, it is hard to decide
  what is the modern meaning.)

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Some 20th-century English dictionaries

• W. Geddie (1901) Chambers 20th-Century
  Dictionary
• A vast ragbag. Many rare Scottish dialect terms.
  Some witty definitions, e.g.
• éclair, a confection long in shape but short in
  duration
• H. W. Fowler (1911) Concise Oxford Dictionary
• A distillation of OED. Interesting approach to
  sense groupings.
• P. Hanks (1979) Collins English Dictionary
• Coverage of technical vocabulary and names.
  Guidance on usage.
• P. Hanks and J. Pearsall (1998) New Oxford
  Dictionary of English
• Corpus-based and citation-based. Distinguishes
  core senses from subsenses. Major vocabulary
  surveys, e.g. of languages, flora and fauna,
  technology etc. Syntactic information.
  Corpus-based guidance on usage.

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Some EFL dictionaries

• A.S. Hornby (1947) Oxford Advanced Learners
  Dictionary
• Pedagogical. Gives syntax, e.g. verb patterns,
  count vs. uncount nouns.
• P. Procter (1978) Longman Dictionary of
  Contemporary English
• Restricted defining vocabulary. More elaborate
  syntax.
• Semantic fields in the electronic version.
• J. M. Sinclair, P. Hanks, et al. (1987) Cobuild
• Corpus-based real-language examples.
  Full-sentence definitions, showing how to use the
  word normally and naturally.
• P. Procter (1993) Cambridge International
  Dictionary of English
• Corpus-based gives syntagmatics and semantic
  fields.
• M. Rundell (2001) Macmillan English Dictionary
• Much pedagogical help with vocabulary building.

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Motivation and definition writing in earlier
English dictionaries

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The first English dictionaries were bi- and
multi-lingual

• Thomas Thomas. 1587. Dictionarium Linguae Latinae
  et Anglicanae. 13th edition 1631
• Richard Percyvale (1591) Bibliotheca Hispanica.
  Containing a Grammar, with a Dictionarie in
  Spanish, English and Latine, gathered out of
  divers good Authors very profitable for the
  studious of the Spanish toong.
• John Minsheu Ductor in Linguas (1617). Spanish
• Randle Cotgrave (1611) A dictionarie of the
  French and English tongues.
• John Florio World of Words (1598) and New World
  of Words (1611) Italian

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The first monolingual English dictionary

• Robert Cawdrey (1604) A Table Alphabeticall of
  hard usuall English wordes, borrowed from the
  Hebrew, Greeke, Latin, or French, etc. gathered
  for the benefit and help of Ladies, Gentlewomen,
  or any other unskillful persons

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Why for the benefit of ladies? 1 historical
background

• The English language was softened up by the
  Norman invasion (1066). Contrast German
• Norman French the language of the law.
• Medieval Latin the language of the Church and of
  scholarship.
• Early Modern English the vernacular of the
  peasantry (but also Chaucer)
• Not much literary writing between Chaucer (died
  1400) and Shakespeare (born 1564).

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Why for the benefit of ladies? 2 English in
the Renaissance

• Renaissance vocabulary thousands of learned
  words (inkhorn terms) were imported into
  English from Latin.
• Establishment of Protestantism under Edward VI
  reigned 1547-53 (died age 16).
• King Edward VI Grammar Schools other traditional
  boys public schools (e.g. Eton).
• No education for girls.

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Entries from Cawdey 1604

• alchimie, the art of turning other mettals into
  gold
• alien, a stranger
• alienate, to estrange, or with-drawe the mind, or
  to make a thing another mans
• allegorie, similitude, a misticall speech, more
  then the bare letter
• allegiance, obedience of a subiect
• allusion, meaning and pointing to another matter
  then is spoken in words
• allude, to speake one thing that hath resemblence
  and respect to another
• altercation, debate, wrangling, or contention
• altitude, height
• amaritude, bitternesse
• ambage, long circumstance of words

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From Johnson 1755 (1)

• ALCHYMY,
• 1. the more sublime and occult part of
  chymystry, which proposes, for its object, the
  transmutation of metals, and other important
  operations.
• There is nothing more dangerous than this
  licentious and deluding art, which changeth the
  meaning of words, as alchymy doth, or would do,
  the substance of metals, maketh of anything what
  it listeth, and bringeth, in the end, all truth
  to nothing. Hooker.
• O he sits high in all the peoples hearts
• And that which would appear offence in us,
• His countenance, like richest alchymy,
• Will change to virtue, and to worthiness.
  Shakesp. J. Caesar.
• Princes do but play us compared to this,
• All honours mimick, all wealth alchymy. Donne.

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From Johnson 1755 (2)

• ALCHYMY,
• 2. A kind of mixed metal used for spoons, and
  kitchen utensils.
• The golden colour may be some mixture of
  orpiment, such as they use to brass in the
  yellow alchymy.
• Bacon.
• White alchymy is made of pan-brass one pound,
  and arsenicum three ounces or alchymy is made
  of copper and auripigmentum. Bacons
  Physical Remains
• They bid cry,
• With trumpets regal found, the great result
• Towrds the four winds, four speedy cherubim
• Put to their mouth the sounding alchymy,
• By heralds voice explained. Miltons Paradise
  Lost, book 2

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From Johnson 1755 (3)

• ALCOHOL,
• An Arabick term used by chymists for a high
  rectified dephlegmated spirit of wine, or for
  anything reduced into an impalpable powder.
  Quincy.
• If the same salt shall be reduced into alcohol,
  as the chymists speak, or an impalpable powder,
  the particles and intercepted spaces will be
  extremely lessened. Boyle.
• Sal volatile oleosum will coagulate the serum on
  account of the alcahol, or rectified spirit,
  which it contains. Arbuthnot.

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From Johnson 1755 (4)

• DEPHLEGMATE, v.a.
• To clear from phlegm, or aqueous insipid matter.
  
• PHLEGM, 2. water.
• A linen cloth, dipped in common spirit of wine,
  is not burnt by the flame, because the phlegm of
  the liquor defends the cloth. Boyle.
• But Greek phlegma means fire! The meaning
  change (to liquid secretion, via inflammation
  of the body) took place in Late Latin

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Aspects of Johnson

• Literary style of definition writing
• Citations from literature, especially poets
• Reliance on scientific and technical authority
• Very full coverage of the vocabulary
• Few concessions to make things easier for the
  reader

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Definition Writing in modern dictionaries

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Random House Dictionary (1966)

• alcohol 1. a colorless, limpid, volatile,
  flammable, water-miscible liquid, C2H5OH, having
  an etherlike odor and pungent, burning taste, the
  intoxicating principle of fermented liquors,
  produced by yeast fermentation of certain
  carbohydrates, as grains, molasses, starch, or
  sugar, or obtained synthetically by hydration of
  ethylene or as a by-product of certain syntheses
  used chiefly as a solvent in the extraction of
  specific substances, in beverages, medicines,
  organic synthesis, lotions, tonics, colognes,
  rubbing compounds, as an automobile radiator
  antifreeze, and as a rocket fuel. 2. whiskey,
  gin, vodka, or any other intoxicating liquor
  containing this liquid. 3. Chem. Any of a class
  of compounds having the general formula ROH,
  where R represents an alkyl group and OH a
  hydroxyl group

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New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998)

• alcohol a colourless volatile flammable liquid
  which is the intoxicating constituent of wine,
  beer, spirits, and other drinks, and is also used
  as an industrial solvent and as fuel.
• Alternative names ethanol, ethyl alcohol
  formula C2H5OH.
• drink containing this he has not taken alcohol
  in 25 years.
• Chemistry. any organic compound whose molecule
  contains one or more hydroxyl groups attached to
  a carbon atom.

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Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 6th edition
(2000)

• alcohol noun U 1 drinks such as beer, wine,
  etc., that can make people drunk He never drinks
  alcohol. alcohol abuse 2 the colourless liquid
  that is found in drinks such as beer, wine, etc.,
  and is used in medicines, cleaning products,
  etc. Wine usually contains about 10 alcohol.
  levels of alcohol in the blood He pleaded
  guilty to driving with excess alcohol.
  Low-alcohol beer Choose an alcohol-free skin
  toner if you have dry skin.

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Cobuild (1987)

• alcohol
• Drinks that can make people drunk, such as beer,
  wine, and whisky, can be referred to as alcohol.
  Do either of you smoke cigarettes or drink
  alcohol? No alcohol is allowed on the premises.
  
• Alcohol is a colourless liquid that is found in
  drinks such as beer, wine, and whisky. It is also
  used in products such as perfumes and cleaning
  fluids. low-alcohol beer Products for dry
  skin have little or no alcohol.

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from a Wasps word sketch(http//wasps.itri.bright
on.ac.uk)

• alcohol (as modifier) BNC freq. MI score
• alcohol consumption 131 34.0
• alcohol abuse 114 31.3
• alcohol intake 53 18.2
• alcohol misuse 23 17.7
• alcohol content 35 15.3
• alcohol problem 38 11.3
• alcohol dependency 5 10.1
• alcohol dependence 7 9.2

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Random House Dictionary (1966)

• alchemy 1. a form of chemistry and speculative
  philosophy practiced in the Middle Ages and the
  Renaissance and concerned principally with
  discovering methods for transmuting baser metals
  into gold and with finding a universal solvent
  and an elixir of life. 2. any magical powder or
  process of transmuting a common substance,
  usually of little value, into a substance of
  great value.

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New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998)

• alchemy the medieval forerunner of chemistry,
  based on the supposed transformation of matter.
  It was concerned particularly with attempts to
  convert base metals into gold or find a universal
  elixir.
• figurative A process by which paradoxical results
  are achieved or incompatible elements combined
  with no obvious rational explanation his
  conducting managed by some alchemy to give a
  sense of fire and ice.

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Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 6th edition
(2000)

• alchemy noun U
• 1 a form of chemistry studied in the Middle Ages
  which involved trying to discover how to change
  ordinary metals into gold. 2 (literary) a
  mysterious power or magic that can change things.

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Cobuild (1987)

• alchemy
• Alchemy was a form of chemistry studied in the
  Middle Ages, which was concerned with trying to
  discover ways to change ordinary metals into
  gold.
• Alchemy is the power to change or create things
  in a way which seems mysterious and magical.
  LITERARY Let us imagine that by some political
  alchemy it had been possible to make all men
  equal.

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Some issues in definition writing

• A verbless phrase or a full sentence (as in
  Cobuild)?
• Defining the essence of something, or
  characterizing what it typically is.
• How much technical detail to put in, and how to
  present it?
• The role of examples.
• How to express changing beliefs, scepticism (e.g.
  about alchemy).
• How to relate figurative extensions to the
  literal meaning (e.g. alchemy a former
  science, but also apparent magic alcohol
  strong drink as well as a chemical)

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Deciding what is a sense

• complain v.i. 1. express dissatisfaction or
  annoyance about a state of affairs or an event.
  2. (complain of) state that one is suffering from
  (a pain) he began to complain of headaches.
• This could be express dissatisfaction about a
  state of affairs or a pain that one is suffering
  from BUT
• complaint n. 1. A statement that a situation is
  unsatis-factory or unacceptable. 2. An illness or
  medical condition a skin complaint.
• Words and senses interact with one another.
  Dictionaries have their own kind of textual
  discourse structure. They are not just lists.

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Selecting entries

• All the words of a language?
• The dictionary as as inventory of the language
• But the inventory of a living language has no
  fixed size neologisms, slang, foreign
  borrowings, technical jargon, etc., etc.
• Should a dictionary include names?
• The dictionary as a cultural index
• are English and England words or names?
• What about Christ? (problematic if only
  entered as an oath. It is an oath, but it is
  also a proper name.)

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Other information in the dictionary

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How much grammatical information should a
dictionary include?

• Danger the (English) public are resistant to
  grammar.
• But grammatical differences must be stated to
  distinguish one sense from another.
• NODE uses with obj., no obj., with
  adverbial, with obj. and adverbial, etc. (It
  dares not go much farther!)
• NODE uses various other devices, including
  highlighting common phraseology in examples.
• NODE makes no explicit mention of count nouns
  except where contrasted with mass nouns.

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Boxed features

• Page design breaking the monotony of the page.
• Boxed features for usage notes, historical
  asides, and other subsidiary information.
  Example
• USAGE The core meaning of refute is prove (a
  statement or theory) to be wrong, as in attempts
  to refute Einsteins theory. In the second half
  of the 20th century, a more general sense
  developed, meaning simply deny, as in I
  absolutely refute the charges made against me.
  Trad-itionalists object to the second use on the
  grounds that it is an unacceptable degradation of
  the language, but it is now widely accepted in
  standard English.

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Arrangement of senses

• On historical principles? (oldest sense first)
• camera 1. a small room. 2. the treasury of the
  papal curia. 3. a device for taking photographs.
• Or representing conventional contemporary usage?
• camera 1. a device for taking photographs. 2. in
  camera in a small room (used of a judge hearing
  evidence in private).

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What is the function of etymologies?

• To record the morphological and phonological
  development of words, from ancient languages
  (French, Latin, Greek, Old Norse, Germanic,
  IndoEuropean, etc.), up to their first
  occurrence in English?
• Or to tell the story of the words history? EG
• Camera from Latin camera small room. The
  modern sense developed in the 19th century via
  the 18th century term camera obscura, denoting a
  darkened upper room with a (rotating) angled
  mirror at the apex of the roof, which projected
  an image of the surrounding landscape onto a flat
  surface in the room
• Or both?

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Word histories explaining semantic development,
too

• madrigal from Italian madrigale, medieval Latin
  carmen matricale simple song (i.e. one without
  instrumental accompaniment), from Latin
  matricalis maternal, simple, primitive, from
  matrix womb.
• magazine via Italian from Arabic makzin
  storehouse (for armaments and goods, hence,
  figuratively, for facts) the same word as French
  magasin shop, department store.
• size from assizes sitting of a law court. A
  size loaf was a loaf of a dimension determined
  by a law court.

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Conclusions

• The purpose(s) of monolingual dictionaries
• To answer all of everbodys questions about
  words, without knowing in advance what the
  questions are going to be.
• The lexicographer must consider the needs,
  expectations, and limitations of the dictionary
  user.
• Coverage (in addition to core vocabulary)
• slang and neologisms (journalists love them!)
• technical vocabulary for a technological world
• names of famous people and places
• A dictionary entry can tell a story.
• Many dictionaries also give guidance on usage.