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Title: Identity%20Politics%20in%20Zanzibar%20and%20Challenges%20to%20Democratic%20Consolidation%20in%20Tanzania


1

2
Identity Politics in Zanzibar and Challenges to
Democratic Consolidation in Tanzania
  • Dr. Bernadeta Killian
  • Reagan-Fascell Democracy Fellow
  • June 28, 2007

Please note that the views expressed in this
presentation represent the opinions and analysis
of the speaker and do not necessarily reflect
those of the National Endowment of Democracy.
3
United Republic of Tanzania
  • One unitary republic, two governments
  • Composed of two formerly sovereign states
    Tanganyika and Zanzibar
  • 1961 Tanganyika gains independence from the
    British
  • 1963 Zanzibar gains independence
  • 1964 Revolution in Zanzibar
  • April 26, 1964 Union between Tanganyika and
    Zanzibar
  • Zanzibar enjoys semi-autonomous status, exercises
    its sovereignty over all domestic and non-union
    matters
  • Zanzibar non-union matters setting up national
    and budgetary policies on such sectors as
    agriculture, tourism, health, education, water,
    communication, industry, etc.
  • Union Matters Foreign affairs, defense and
    security, police, emergency powers, citizenship,
    external borrowing and trade, mineral oil
    resources, higher education, court of appeal,
    registration of political parties, etc.

4
Basic Data
  • Tanzania945,087sq. km
  • Tanzania per-capita income US340 (2006)
  • Zanzibar per-capita US327 (2005)
  • Tanzania (total pop.) 34,443,603
  • Zanzibar 981,754 people
  • Unguja Island (60)
  • Pemba Island (40)

5
I. Introduction Tanzania Unity in Diversity
  • Tanzania is renowned for its long-established
    civic peace unity among its diverse ethnic,
    religion racial groups
  • It has been a peace-broker model of national
    cohesion in E. Africa
  • The use of Swahili language has been a binding
    thread
  • In the case of Zanzibar, a common religion
    (Islam) and a high rate of intermarriage have
    unified the states diverse ethno-racial groups

6
Why is Zanzibar Different?
  • Struggle for the control of the state has been
    intense, deadly zero-sum
  • Unlike in mainland Tanzania, the struggle for
    political power in Zanzibar has largely been
    shaped by the politics of identity on the basis
    of race.
  • Racial labels of Africans vs. Arabs are
    widely used in the context of political
    contestation for power.
  • This presentation seeks to understand why.
  • Why do political elites in Zanzibar politicize
    racial identities, particularly at election time?

7
Politicized Racial Identity Explained
Control of the State
Identity of the State (Arab vs. African)
Sovereignty of the State (Zanzibar vs. Union)
8
II Historical ContextThe Shaping of Political
Identities
  • Over the centuries, Zanzibar attracted several
    immigrant groups, including
  • Mainland Africans (3rd-4th century)
  • Persians (10th century)
  • Arabs (11th century)
  • Europeans (16th century)
  • Comorians (18th Century)
  • Indians (19th century)
  • Intermarriage between Persians Africans led to
    the emergence of Shirazi Africans

9
The Shaping of Political Identities
Shirazi Africans
Africans
Mainland Africans
  • Shirazi Africans the Hadimu, Tumbatu and Pemba
    Shirazi
  • Mainland Africans Africans of recent arrival
    from the African hinterland (slaves, freed slaves
    and their descendants, and migrant laborers)
    (latecomers)
  • 1948 census the Shirazi (55.8), Mainland
    African (19.8), Arabs(16.9), Indians(6.2),
    Comorians (1.1),Europeans (0.1),Other (0.1)

10
Colonial Economy and theShaping of Political
Identities

British Arabs Indians Africans
11
Shaping of Political Identities (contd)
  • Politics deeply divided along ethno-racial lines
  • African Association, Shirazi Association, Arab
    Association, Indian Association
  • Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP) Arab-led
  • Formed in 1955
  • Support base Arabs, Pemba Tumbatu Shirazi
  • Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP)
  • Formed 1957
  • Support base Mainland Africans Unguja Shirazi
    (Hadimu)
  • Zanzibar and Pemba Peoples Party (ZPPP)
  • Formed in 1959
  • Support base Pemba Shirazi

12
State Succession State Identity in Zanzibar
ZNP/ZPPP government Dec 10, 1963Jan 12, 1964 (33
days)
Shirazi chieftainships until 16th century

Arab Rule 1744-1963 (219 years)
Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar Jan 12,
1964April 26, 1964 (3 ½ months)
British Rule 1890-1963 (73 years)
E. African Federation?
As the state has changed hands, so too has the
identity of the state changed.
13
III Democratization and Political Identities
  • Third wave of democratization brings to the fore
    suppressed competing diversities
  • Resurgence of identity politics Recurrent
    feature of new democracies in Latin America,
    Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe and former USSR
  • Group/ethnic identities determining criterion
    for inclusion or exclusion in the polity in
    deeply divided societies.
  • Who belongs here? has become a buzz word in
    democratic competition in what Horowitz calls
    severely divided societies (Horowitz, 1985)

14
Democratization Political Identities
  • As opposed to cultural and market-based
    identities, political identities are those that
    are legally enforced and institutionally
    reproduced in the process of state formation
    (Mahmood Mamdani, 2001)
  • Plural identities emerge from situations of
    stress, in which identity is threatened, and when
    consequences of domination by another group are
    perceived to be enormous (Horowitz,1985,1999
    Rothchild,1997)
  • Political identities instrumental rather than
    primordial due to their dynamics, situational and
    pragmatic nature.

15
  • Election-centric conception of consolidation
    phase as Harbeson (1999) calls it, is problematic
  • Even after three consecutive elections, democracy
    cannot be regarded as having been consolidated in
    Zanzibar.
  • Democratic consolidation should go beyond the
    democratic process, which focuses largely on
    the holding of multi-party competitive elections
    and focuses on what Dankwart Rustow (1970) calls
    habituation
  • Guillermo ODonnell (1996) refers to a close fit
    between formal rules and behaviour.

16
IV Multi-Party Democracy Resurgence of
Identity Politics (1992present)
  • Old political divisions and memories come to the
    fore.
  • Two major political parties emergeCUF and CCM
  • CCM (or Chama cha Mapinduzi)
  • is a merger of ASP and Mainland party Tanganyika
    African National Union (TANU)
  • fully represents the interests of the old ASP
  • Electoral support the same as in
    pre-independence elections
  • CCM stronghold Unguja and Africans
  • Civic United Front (CUF)
  • appears to replicate the previous ZNP-ZPPP
    alliance
  • Electoral support the same as in
    pre-independence elections
  • CUF stronghold Pemba and among non-Africans

17
CCM versus CUF
Votes earned by CCM and CUF presidential
candidates in Unguja and Pemba (19952005)

18
Politicization of Racial Identities
  • The return of multiparty politics has revived
    unresolved questions concerning control of the
    state in Zanzibar, its identity, and its
    sovereignty.
  • Politicized racial identities during campaigns
    Africans vs. Arabs
  • For the regime in power, democratization can as
    well lead to losing control of the state, its
    African identity, and the possibility of being
    ruled by what they find as being the remnants of
    the Sultanate oligarchy.
  • The state sovereignty is also at stake given the
    fact that the policy of the major opposition
    party is to revisit the Union question (form and
    content).

19
Politicization of Racial IdentitiesCUF Campaign
Speeches
  • Elections would lead to the end of a blackmans
    rule.CUF leader, campaign rally at
    Kibandamaiti, 21 October, 1995
  • The African-led Revolutionary government has
    been far more brutal than the Arab
    aristocracyand that peoples living standards
    were better off before the Revolution than it is
    today.CUF presidential candidate, campaign
    rally at Makunduchi, September 17, 2005

20
CUF Campaign Issues (contd)
  • Question legitimacy of the 1964 Revolution
  • Cherish Zanzibars 1963 independence
  • Pay reparations or return confiscated property to
    pre-revolution owners
  • Convict those engaged in arbitrary killings and
    torture during and after the revolution
  • Advocate for a federal system, 3-government
    structure
  • Suspend and review additional Union matters
  • Promote equal rights for all, including
    equality in development

21
Politicization of Racial Identities CCM Campaign
Issues
  • The Zanzibar population is predominantly black
    the colour of indigeneous AfricansThere is a
    need to ensure that the great 1964 Revolution
    remains for ever and that Zanzibar remains
    African. That is the only way Africans as the
    majority Zanzibaris can determine their own fate
    and the destiny of Zanzibar
  • CUF is a party representing Arab interests and
    voting for it would lead to the restoration of
    the Sultanate, and the subsequent break-up of the
    Union.
  • CUF is portrayed to be a Muslim party with an
    intent of establishing an Islamic state.
  • Omar Mapuri (former CCM deputy chief minister,
    minister of education in Zanzibar, and former
    Union minister), Zanzibar Revolution
    Achievements and Prospects, 1997

22
CCM Campaign Issues
  • Praise protect the 1964 Revolution Revolution
    forever
  • Support the Union and two-government structure
    (formal CCM policy)
  • Bring about development
  • Maintain peace and unity

23
Consequences of the Politicization of Racial
Identities
  • Political conflicts, political stand-offs,
    violence, lack of social and civic peace.
  • Three rounds of elections (in 1995, 2000, and
    2005) do not deepen democracy, but rather, derail
    it.
  • 1995 and 2000 elections deemed not free and fair,
    due to voter intimidation, voter fraud, rigging
    and partisanship of the electoral body.
  • 2005 elections anomalies in vote counting

24
Consequences of the Politicization of Racial
Identities
  • Sporadic violence during election season (2000).
    Mass demonstrations lead to death of at least 30
    people
  • Freedom of speech constrained by the government
  • Two Reconciliation Accords between CCM and CUF
    (1999 2001) breached
  • Ethnicization of state apparatus

25
V Implications of Competing Political Identities
on Democratic Consolidation
  • I Elections become an instrument to maintain
    state power
  • Voters are excluded based on their appearance,
    area of origin, party affiliation (Wapemba
    versus Wabara)
  • Security forces as votersvoter importation

26
Registration of Security Forces
  • Turnout in Registration Centers in Central
    District with Military Camps Nearby

Registration center Military Camp Estimated Voters Registered voters of registered voters
Ubago School Ubago TPDF 441 1402 317.91
Machui School Machui JKU FFU 696 1060 152.3
Posta Kaepwani Unguja Ukuu Navy (KMKM) 1268 2076 163.72
Tunguu School Tunguu Fire Brigades 520 556 106.92
Marumbi School Marumbi KMKM 561 876 156.15
Dungabweni School Dunga JKU TPDF 1520 2106 138.55
Jendele School Jendele JKU 907 1366 152.81
Cheju School Cheju Prison 971 1163 119.77
Bambi Sec. School Bambi JKU 1336 2125 159.06
Source TEMCO (2006) The 2005 Presidential and
General Elections in Zanzibar, p. 216
27
Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
  • II CUFs status as the leading opposition party
    in Tanzania is at risk
  • Unlike other opposition parties in Tanzania, CUF
    has a strong social base in Zanzibar, owing to a
    perceived common history and a collective sense
    of exclusion
  • However, politicization of CUF as a Pemba
    party, Islamic party, and Arab party, makes
    it difficult for CUF to expand its social base to
    the mainland.
  • All other opposition parties are in decline in
    terms of electoral support.

28
CUF versus Other Parties Union Parliamentary
Seats
29
CCM versus Opposition
Parliamentary Elections in Tanzania (19952005)
30
Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
  • III Ambivalent popular support for institutions
    of democracy
  • Unquestionable embrace of democratic procedures
    by a significant segment of the citizenry is a
    crucial element of consolidation (Diamond et al.,
    1997)
  • Unlike in mainland Tanzania, citizens support
    for multi-party democracy in Zanzibar is
    comparatively low.

31
Popular Support for Democracyin Mainland
Tanzania vs. Zanzibar (March 1999)
PARTY SYSTEM TANZANIA MAINLAND ZANZIBAR
Multi-party system 51.5 54.4 40.9
Multi-party system (299) (247) (52)
Single-party system 40.4 37.4 51.2
Single-party system (235) (170) (65)
No difference 8.1 8.1 7.9
No difference (47) (37) (10)
TOTAL 100 100 100
TOTAL (581) (454) (127)
32
Popular Support for DemocracyMainland Tanzania
vs. Zanzibar
Tanzanians Support for Party Systems (March
2006)
PARTY SYSTEM TANZANIA MAINLAND ZANZIBAR
Multi-party system 63.3 65.5 55.3
Multi-party system (857) (690) (166)
Single-party system 27.9 25.4 34
Single-party system (369) (267) (102)
No difference 9.4 9.1 10.7
No difference (127) (96) (32)
TOTAL 100 100 100
TOTAL (1353) (1053) (300)
33
Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
  • Racial Tolerance Among Zanzibaris (1999 Survey)

Questions Would Agree Somewhat Agree Would Disagree Depends on his/her decision TOTAL
Son marry from different racial group 59.8 (76)   2.4 (3)   21.3 (27)   16.5 (21)   100 (127)  
Daughter marry from different racial group 56.7 (72) 4.7 (6) 22.8 (29) 15.8 (20) 100 (127)
Son marry from different political party 51.2 (65) 4.7 (6) 27.6 (35) 16.6 (21) 100 (127)
Daughter marry from different political party 59.1 (75) 4.7 (6) 25.2 (32) 11 (14) 100 (127)
Son marry from another religion 11.8 (15) 4.7 (6) 68.5 (87) 15 (19) 100 (127)
If your MP is of different race/color Dont mind Somewhat mind Would mind Dont know TOTAL
If your MP is of different race/color 14.2 (18) 7.1 (9) 77.2 (98) 1.6 (2) 100 (127)
If your MP is of different religion 17.3 8.7 71.7 2.4 100
If your MP is of different religion (22) (11) (91) (3) (127)
34
Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
  • Respondents Support for Democratic Institutions
    Processes

 QUESTIONS Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Other Total
All political parties be allowed to hold public meetings 58.3   (74) 7.1   (9) 24.4 (31) 10.3 (13) 100 (127)
Government critics should not contest for national leadership 28.3   (36) 3.1 (4) 59.8   (76) 8.7   (11) 100 (127)
Private-owned media should be restricted 18.9 (24) 11.8 (15) 57.5 (73) 11.8   (15) 100   (127)
Only CCM should be allowed to rule 55.9 (71) 0.8   (1) 39.4 (50) 4 (6) 100 (127)
35
Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
  • IV Rigidity of Zanzibari Voters
  • As a result of politicized ethno-racial
    identities, it has been difficult for a third
    party or mainland-based parties to gain electoral
    support
  • Electoral campaigns are avenues largely for
    enhancing party loyalty among members, rather
    than recruiting new members, e.g. role of party
    youth wings is to guard the meetings against
    intruders (non-members)
  • Community/group pressure to make people attend
    only those meetings that are organized by their
    parties

36
Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
  • V The State of the Union
  • Increased assertiveness on the part of Zanzibar
    government for more political space and autonomy
    from the Union government.
  • As political competition gets tougher, the need
    for strong control over coercive instruments of
    the state becomes necessary.
  • In May 2004, the Revolutionary government of
    Zanzibar outlined 15 Union matters to be removed
    from the Union list, including oil and natural
    gas, international relations, intelligence,
    police, etc.

37
VI Conclusions Recommendations
  • Consensus, negotiations, accommodation, and
    compromise become difficult.
  • Rule of law and good governance become
    jeopardized
  • Recognizing variations and contrasts between
    these two partner states is critically important
  • Bring ethno-racial issues and their implications
    to the negotiation table
  • Building and nurturing incentive mechanisms of
    dialogue and reconciliations should be made a
    high priority.

38
Sunrise in Zanzibar
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