Title: Identity%20Politics%20in%20Zanzibar%20and%20Challenges%20to%20Democratic%20Consolidation%20in%20Tanzania
1 2Identity Politics in Zanzibar and Challenges to
Democratic Consolidation in Tanzania
- Dr. Bernadeta Killian
- Reagan-Fascell Democracy Fellow
- June 28, 2007
Please note that the views expressed in this
presentation represent the opinions and analysis
of the speaker and do not necessarily reflect
those of the National Endowment of Democracy.
3United Republic of Tanzania
- One unitary republic, two governments
- Composed of two formerly sovereign states
Tanganyika and Zanzibar - 1961 Tanganyika gains independence from the
British - 1963 Zanzibar gains independence
- 1964 Revolution in Zanzibar
- April 26, 1964 Union between Tanganyika and
Zanzibar - Zanzibar enjoys semi-autonomous status, exercises
its sovereignty over all domestic and non-union
matters - Zanzibar non-union matters setting up national
and budgetary policies on such sectors as
agriculture, tourism, health, education, water,
communication, industry, etc. - Union Matters Foreign affairs, defense and
security, police, emergency powers, citizenship,
external borrowing and trade, mineral oil
resources, higher education, court of appeal,
registration of political parties, etc.
4Basic Data
- Tanzania945,087sq. km
- Tanzania per-capita income US340 (2006)
- Zanzibar per-capita US327 (2005)
- Tanzania (total pop.) 34,443,603
- Zanzibar 981,754 people
- Unguja Island (60)
- Pemba Island (40)
5I. Introduction Tanzania Unity in Diversity
- Tanzania is renowned for its long-established
civic peace unity among its diverse ethnic,
religion racial groups - It has been a peace-broker model of national
cohesion in E. Africa - The use of Swahili language has been a binding
thread - In the case of Zanzibar, a common religion
(Islam) and a high rate of intermarriage have
unified the states diverse ethno-racial groups
6Why is Zanzibar Different?
- Struggle for the control of the state has been
intense, deadly zero-sum - Unlike in mainland Tanzania, the struggle for
political power in Zanzibar has largely been
shaped by the politics of identity on the basis
of race. - Racial labels of Africans vs. Arabs are
widely used in the context of political
contestation for power. - This presentation seeks to understand why.
- Why do political elites in Zanzibar politicize
racial identities, particularly at election time?
7Politicized Racial Identity Explained
Control of the State
Identity of the State (Arab vs. African)
Sovereignty of the State (Zanzibar vs. Union)
8II Historical ContextThe Shaping of Political
Identities
- Over the centuries, Zanzibar attracted several
immigrant groups, including - Mainland Africans (3rd-4th century)
- Persians (10th century)
- Arabs (11th century)
- Europeans (16th century)
- Comorians (18th Century)
- Indians (19th century)
- Intermarriage between Persians Africans led to
the emergence of Shirazi Africans
9The Shaping of Political Identities
Shirazi Africans
Africans
Mainland Africans
- Shirazi Africans the Hadimu, Tumbatu and Pemba
Shirazi - Mainland Africans Africans of recent arrival
from the African hinterland (slaves, freed slaves
and their descendants, and migrant laborers)
(latecomers) - 1948 census the Shirazi (55.8), Mainland
African (19.8), Arabs(16.9), Indians(6.2),
Comorians (1.1),Europeans (0.1),Other (0.1)
10Colonial Economy and theShaping of Political
Identities
British Arabs Indians Africans
11Shaping of Political Identities (contd)
- Politics deeply divided along ethno-racial lines
- African Association, Shirazi Association, Arab
Association, Indian Association - Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP) Arab-led
- Formed in 1955
- Support base Arabs, Pemba Tumbatu Shirazi
- Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP)
- Formed 1957
- Support base Mainland Africans Unguja Shirazi
(Hadimu) - Zanzibar and Pemba Peoples Party (ZPPP)
- Formed in 1959
- Support base Pemba Shirazi
12 State Succession State Identity in Zanzibar
ZNP/ZPPP government Dec 10, 1963Jan 12, 1964 (33
days)
Shirazi chieftainships until 16th century
Arab Rule 1744-1963 (219 years)
Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar Jan 12,
1964April 26, 1964 (3 ½ months)
British Rule 1890-1963 (73 years)
E. African Federation?
As the state has changed hands, so too has the
identity of the state changed.
13III Democratization and Political Identities
- Third wave of democratization brings to the fore
suppressed competing diversities - Resurgence of identity politics Recurrent
feature of new democracies in Latin America,
Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe and former USSR - Group/ethnic identities determining criterion
for inclusion or exclusion in the polity in
deeply divided societies. - Who belongs here? has become a buzz word in
democratic competition in what Horowitz calls
severely divided societies (Horowitz, 1985)
14Democratization Political Identities
- As opposed to cultural and market-based
identities, political identities are those that
are legally enforced and institutionally
reproduced in the process of state formation
(Mahmood Mamdani, 2001) - Plural identities emerge from situations of
stress, in which identity is threatened, and when
consequences of domination by another group are
perceived to be enormous (Horowitz,1985,1999
Rothchild,1997) - Political identities instrumental rather than
primordial due to their dynamics, situational and
pragmatic nature.
15- Election-centric conception of consolidation
phase as Harbeson (1999) calls it, is problematic
- Even after three consecutive elections, democracy
cannot be regarded as having been consolidated in
Zanzibar. - Democratic consolidation should go beyond the
democratic process, which focuses largely on
the holding of multi-party competitive elections
and focuses on what Dankwart Rustow (1970) calls
habituation - Guillermo ODonnell (1996) refers to a close fit
between formal rules and behaviour.
16IV Multi-Party Democracy Resurgence of
Identity Politics (1992present)
- Old political divisions and memories come to the
fore. - Two major political parties emergeCUF and CCM
- CCM (or Chama cha Mapinduzi)
- is a merger of ASP and Mainland party Tanganyika
African National Union (TANU) - fully represents the interests of the old ASP
- Electoral support the same as in
pre-independence elections - CCM stronghold Unguja and Africans
- Civic United Front (CUF)
- appears to replicate the previous ZNP-ZPPP
alliance - Electoral support the same as in
pre-independence elections - CUF stronghold Pemba and among non-Africans
17CCM versus CUF
Votes earned by CCM and CUF presidential
candidates in Unguja and Pemba (19952005)
18 Politicization of Racial Identities
- The return of multiparty politics has revived
unresolved questions concerning control of the
state in Zanzibar, its identity, and its
sovereignty. - Politicized racial identities during campaigns
Africans vs. Arabs - For the regime in power, democratization can as
well lead to losing control of the state, its
African identity, and the possibility of being
ruled by what they find as being the remnants of
the Sultanate oligarchy. - The state sovereignty is also at stake given the
fact that the policy of the major opposition
party is to revisit the Union question (form and
content).
19Politicization of Racial IdentitiesCUF Campaign
Speeches
- Elections would lead to the end of a blackmans
rule.CUF leader, campaign rally at
Kibandamaiti, 21 October, 1995 - The African-led Revolutionary government has
been far more brutal than the Arab
aristocracyand that peoples living standards
were better off before the Revolution than it is
today.CUF presidential candidate, campaign
rally at Makunduchi, September 17, 2005
20CUF Campaign Issues (contd)
- Question legitimacy of the 1964 Revolution
- Cherish Zanzibars 1963 independence
- Pay reparations or return confiscated property to
pre-revolution owners - Convict those engaged in arbitrary killings and
torture during and after the revolution - Advocate for a federal system, 3-government
structure - Suspend and review additional Union matters
- Promote equal rights for all, including
equality in development
21Politicization of Racial Identities CCM Campaign
Issues
- The Zanzibar population is predominantly black
the colour of indigeneous AfricansThere is a
need to ensure that the great 1964 Revolution
remains for ever and that Zanzibar remains
African. That is the only way Africans as the
majority Zanzibaris can determine their own fate
and the destiny of Zanzibar - CUF is a party representing Arab interests and
voting for it would lead to the restoration of
the Sultanate, and the subsequent break-up of the
Union. - CUF is portrayed to be a Muslim party with an
intent of establishing an Islamic state. - Omar Mapuri (former CCM deputy chief minister,
minister of education in Zanzibar, and former
Union minister), Zanzibar Revolution
Achievements and Prospects, 1997
22 CCM Campaign Issues
- Praise protect the 1964 Revolution Revolution
forever - Support the Union and two-government structure
(formal CCM policy) - Bring about development
- Maintain peace and unity
23Consequences of the Politicization of Racial
Identities
- Political conflicts, political stand-offs,
violence, lack of social and civic peace. - Three rounds of elections (in 1995, 2000, and
2005) do not deepen democracy, but rather, derail
it. - 1995 and 2000 elections deemed not free and fair,
due to voter intimidation, voter fraud, rigging
and partisanship of the electoral body. - 2005 elections anomalies in vote counting
24Consequences of the Politicization of Racial
Identities
- Sporadic violence during election season (2000).
Mass demonstrations lead to death of at least 30
people - Freedom of speech constrained by the government
- Two Reconciliation Accords between CCM and CUF
(1999 2001) breached - Ethnicization of state apparatus
25V Implications of Competing Political Identities
on Democratic Consolidation
- I Elections become an instrument to maintain
state power - Voters are excluded based on their appearance,
area of origin, party affiliation (Wapemba
versus Wabara) - Security forces as votersvoter importation
26Registration of Security Forces
- Turnout in Registration Centers in Central
District with Military Camps Nearby
Registration center Military Camp Estimated Voters Registered voters of registered voters
Ubago School Ubago TPDF 441 1402 317.91
Machui School Machui JKU FFU 696 1060 152.3
Posta Kaepwani Unguja Ukuu Navy (KMKM) 1268 2076 163.72
Tunguu School Tunguu Fire Brigades 520 556 106.92
Marumbi School Marumbi KMKM 561 876 156.15
Dungabweni School Dunga JKU TPDF 1520 2106 138.55
Jendele School Jendele JKU 907 1366 152.81
Cheju School Cheju Prison 971 1163 119.77
Bambi Sec. School Bambi JKU 1336 2125 159.06
Source TEMCO (2006) The 2005 Presidential and
General Elections in Zanzibar, p. 216
27Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
- II CUFs status as the leading opposition party
in Tanzania is at risk - Unlike other opposition parties in Tanzania, CUF
has a strong social base in Zanzibar, owing to a
perceived common history and a collective sense
of exclusion - However, politicization of CUF as a Pemba
party, Islamic party, and Arab party, makes
it difficult for CUF to expand its social base to
the mainland. - All other opposition parties are in decline in
terms of electoral support.
28CUF versus Other Parties Union Parliamentary
Seats
29CCM versus Opposition
Parliamentary Elections in Tanzania (19952005)
30Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
- III Ambivalent popular support for institutions
of democracy - Unquestionable embrace of democratic procedures
by a significant segment of the citizenry is a
crucial element of consolidation (Diamond et al.,
1997) - Unlike in mainland Tanzania, citizens support
for multi-party democracy in Zanzibar is
comparatively low.
31Popular Support for Democracyin Mainland
Tanzania vs. Zanzibar (March 1999)
PARTY SYSTEM TANZANIA MAINLAND ZANZIBAR
Multi-party system 51.5 54.4 40.9
Multi-party system (299) (247) (52)
Single-party system 40.4 37.4 51.2
Single-party system (235) (170) (65)
No difference 8.1 8.1 7.9
No difference (47) (37) (10)
TOTAL 100 100 100
TOTAL (581) (454) (127)
32Popular Support for DemocracyMainland Tanzania
vs. Zanzibar
Tanzanians Support for Party Systems (March
2006)
PARTY SYSTEM TANZANIA MAINLAND ZANZIBAR
Multi-party system 63.3 65.5 55.3
Multi-party system (857) (690) (166)
Single-party system 27.9 25.4 34
Single-party system (369) (267) (102)
No difference 9.4 9.1 10.7
No difference (127) (96) (32)
TOTAL 100 100 100
TOTAL (1353) (1053) (300)
33Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
- Racial Tolerance Among Zanzibaris (1999 Survey)
Questions Would Agree Somewhat Agree Would Disagree Depends on his/her decision TOTAL
Son marry from different racial group 59.8 (76) 2.4 (3) 21.3 (27) 16.5 (21) 100 (127)
Daughter marry from different racial group 56.7 (72) 4.7 (6) 22.8 (29) 15.8 (20) 100 (127)
Son marry from different political party 51.2 (65) 4.7 (6) 27.6 (35) 16.6 (21) 100 (127)
Daughter marry from different political party 59.1 (75) 4.7 (6) 25.2 (32) 11 (14) 100 (127)
Son marry from another religion 11.8 (15) 4.7 (6) 68.5 (87) 15 (19) 100 (127)
If your MP is of different race/color Dont mind Somewhat mind Would mind Dont know TOTAL
If your MP is of different race/color 14.2 (18) 7.1 (9) 77.2 (98) 1.6 (2) 100 (127)
If your MP is of different religion 17.3 8.7 71.7 2.4 100
If your MP is of different religion (22) (11) (91) (3) (127)
34Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
- Respondents Support for Democratic Institutions
Processes
QUESTIONS Agree Somewhat Agree Disagree Other Total
All political parties be allowed to hold public meetings 58.3 (74) 7.1 (9) 24.4 (31) 10.3 (13) 100 (127)
Government critics should not contest for national leadership 28.3 (36) 3.1 (4) 59.8 (76) 8.7 (11) 100 (127)
Private-owned media should be restricted 18.9 (24) 11.8 (15) 57.5 (73) 11.8 (15) 100 (127)
Only CCM should be allowed to rule 55.9 (71) 0.8 (1) 39.4 (50) 4 (6) 100 (127)
35Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
- IV Rigidity of Zanzibari Voters
- As a result of politicized ethno-racial
identities, it has been difficult for a third
party or mainland-based parties to gain electoral
support - Electoral campaigns are avenues largely for
enhancing party loyalty among members, rather
than recruiting new members, e.g. role of party
youth wings is to guard the meetings against
intruders (non-members) - Community/group pressure to make people attend
only those meetings that are organized by their
parties
36Implications of Competing Political Identities
(contd)
- V The State of the Union
- Increased assertiveness on the part of Zanzibar
government for more political space and autonomy
from the Union government. - As political competition gets tougher, the need
for strong control over coercive instruments of
the state becomes necessary. - In May 2004, the Revolutionary government of
Zanzibar outlined 15 Union matters to be removed
from the Union list, including oil and natural
gas, international relations, intelligence,
police, etc.
37VI Conclusions Recommendations
- Consensus, negotiations, accommodation, and
compromise become difficult. - Rule of law and good governance become
jeopardized - Recognizing variations and contrasts between
these two partner states is critically important - Bring ethno-racial issues and their implications
to the negotiation table - Building and nurturing incentive mechanisms of
dialogue and reconciliations should be made a
high priority.
38Sunrise in Zanzibar