POWER (KEKUASAAN)

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POWER(KEKUASAAN)
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Sharing power is a business necessity
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THE CONCEPT OF POWER

• Influence a transaction in which person B is
  induced by person A to behave in a certain way
• Power (Robert Dahl) A has power over B to the
  extent that he can get B to do something B would
  not otherwise do

• POWER
• the capability to get someone to do something
• the potential to influence

• INFLUENCE
• the exercise of that capability
• power in action

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• You may have power but not use it on the other
  hand, you cannot influence anyone without power
• It is important to stress that power is not an
  attribute of a particular person ? it is an
  aspect of relationship that exists between two
  (or more) people.
• No individual or group can have power in
  isolation power must exist in relation to some
  other person or group.
• Power relationships
• symmetrical ? both parties are equal or have the
  same amount of power
• asymmetrical ? one person in the relationship has
  more power than other

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Social Influence, Power Politics How They Are
Related ( Greenberg dan Baron, 2003)
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WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM?

• INTERPERSONAL
• Legitimate power
• Reward power
• Coercive power
• Expert power
• Referent power

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TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL POWER A SUMMARY ( Greenberg
dan Baron, 2003)
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INTERPERSONAL POWER

• Legitimate power capacity to influence derived
  from the position of a manager in the
  organizational hierarchy. Subordinates believe
  that they ought to comply.
• authority the ability to influence others based
  on the perceived power of ones position and role
  within an organization
• Reward power an influence over others based on
  hope of reward - kemampuan atau wewenang untuk
  memberikan dan mengontrol reward
• Coercive power influence over others based on
  fear - kemampuan atau wewenang untuk menghukum
  baik secara fisik maupun secara psikologis
• Expert power capacity to influence related to
  some expertise, special skill, or knowledge
• Referent power power based on a subordinates
  identification with a superior - mirip karisma
  karena melibatkan rasa percaya, penerimaan, kasih
  sayang, kesediaan untuk menjadi pengikut dan
  keterlibatan emosi

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Subordinates responses to different power sources

1. The use of legitimate or reward power will
   typically result in compliance subordinates
   will obey your requests, but are unlikely to
   exert more than the minimal effort necessary
2. The use coercive power may result in resistance
   subordinates may only pretend to comply with your
   requests, and they may openly resist
3. The use of expert and referent power frequently
   result in commitment subordinates are likely to
   exert high levels of effort to accomplish what
   you ask, perhaps even exceeding what you requested

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American CEOs What are their power bases?

• Source of power
• Personality and leadership skills (83)
• Support of the board of directors (70)
• Support of senior colleagues (64)
• Expertise knowledge (43)
• Management decision control (28)
• Support of the financial community (9)
• ? a survey of more than 200 American CEOs
  revealed that they obtain their power primarily
  by cultivating the support of others at different
  levels of the organization (source based on data
  appearing in Stewart, 1999)

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LEGITIMATE POWER
KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN
Mungkin, jika perintah dilakukan dengan sikap sopan dan baik hati Mungkin, jika perintah dirasakan legitimate Mungkin, jika bersikap arogan dan isi perintah tidak pada tempatnya
Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan legitimate power?

• Bersikap ramah dan baik hati
• Percaya diri
• Membangun understanding
• Yakini bahwa perintah yang diberikan cukup pantas
• Jelaskan alasan diberikannya perintah
• Sensitif terhadap perasaan dan keinginan bawahan

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REWARD POWER
KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN
Mungkin, jika digunakan secara pribadi dan tidak jelas Sangat mungkin, jika dilakukan secara mekanis dan impersonal Mungkin, jika bersikap arogan dan manipulatif
Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan reward power?

• Berikan perintah yang masuk akal
• Hanya memberikan perintah yang pantas dan etis
• Memberikan reward sesuai harapan bawahan
• Hanya memberikan reward yang kredibel

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COERCIVE POWER
KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN
Tidak mungkin Mungkin, jika digunakan secara tepat dan dengan sikap penyesalan Sangat mungkin, jika bersikap kejam dan manipulatif
Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan coercive power?

• Menginformasikan pada bawahan mengenai peraturan
  dan hukuman
• Memberi peringatan sebelum menghukum
• Melaksanakan hukuman secara konsisten dan tidak
  pandang bulu
• Memahami situasi sebelum bertindak
• Menjaga kredibilitas
• Hukuman sesuai dengan pelanggaran
• Menghukum secara tertutup, tidak di depan orang
  lain

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EXPERT POWER
KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN
Sangat mungkin, jika persuasif dan bawahan terlibat dalam pengambilan keputusan Mungkin, jika persuasuif tapi bawahan kurang cocok dengan tujuan pimpinan Mungkin, jika pemimpin bersikap arogan dan menghina, atau bawahan menentang tujuan pimpinan
Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan expert power?

• Memperlihatkan kesan kepakaran (expertise)
• Mempertahankan kredibilitas
• Bertindak dengan percaya diri dan tegas
• Selalu menambah informasi (meningkatkan
  kepakaran)
• Hindari sikap yang merendahkan harga diri bawahan

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REFERENT POWER
KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN
Sangat mungkin, jika perintah diyakini sebagai sesuatu yang penting bagi sang pemimpin Mungkin, jika perintahdiyakini sebagai sesuatu yang kurang penting bagi sang pemimpin Mungkin, jikaperintah atau kejadian akan berakibat buruk pada sang pemimpin
Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan referent power?

• Memperlakukan bawahan secara adil
• Membela kepentingan bawahan
• Sensitif terhadap kebutuhan dan perasaan bawahan
  menjadi model peran (contoh teladan)

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WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM?

• STRUCTURAL
• Resources
• Decision making power
• Information power

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STRUCTURAL POWER

• The structure of an organization is the control
  mechanism by which the organization is governed.
• Organizational structure creates formal power and
  authority by specifying certain individuals to
  perform specific tasks and make certain
  decisions. Structure also significantly impacts
  informal power through its effect on information
  and communication flows within the system.
• Resources
• power stems from
• access to resource, information, and support, and
  
• the ability to get cooperation in doing necessary
  work
• Power occurs when a person has open channels to
  resources money, human resources, technology,
  materials, customers, etc

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STRUCTURAL POWER

• Decision-Making Power
• The degree to which individuals or subunits can
  affect decision making determines the amount of
  power acquired.
• A person or sub unit with power can influence
  how the decision making process occurs, what
  alternatives are considered, and when a decision
  is made.
• Individuals who influence a decision making
  process and its outcomes may or may not have
  formal authority.
• Information Power
• Knowledge a conclusion or analysis derived from
  data and information.
• Having access to relevant and important
  knowledge information is power.
• Information is the basis for making effective
  decisions. Thus, those who possess information
  needed in order to make potential decisions have
  power.
• The powerful manager exist because s/he allocates
  required resources, makes crucial decisions, and
  has access to important information.
• The powerless manager lacks the resources,
  information, and decision making prerogatives
  needed to be productive

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KOALISI KOALISI DOMINAN
KOALISI ADALAH GABUNGAN BEBERAPA KELOMPOK YANG
MEMILIKI KEPENTINGAN TERTENTU YANG INGIN DICAPAI
DALAM ORGANISASI KOALISI DOMINAN TERDIRI DARI
ORANG-ORANG YANG MEMILIKI POWER TERKUAT DAN
BANYAK MENENTUKAN KEBIJAKAN ORGANISASI
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INTERDEPARTEMENTAL POWER

• THE STRATEGIC CONTINGENCIES MODEL POWER THROUGH
  DEPENDENCE
• POWER TERBESAR ADA PADA AREA DALAM ORGANISASI
  YANG PALING MAMPU MENANGANI MASALAH-MASALAH
  KRITIS
• Subunit Power, the power differential between
  subunits, is influenced by
• the degree of ability to cope with uncertainty
• the centrality of the subunit, and
• the substitutability of the subunit

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The Strategic Contingencies Model Power Through
Dependence
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INTERDEPARTEMENTAL POWER( Greenberg dan Baron,
2003)

• THE RESOURCE-DEPENDENCY MODEL CONTROLLING
  CRITICAL RESOURCES
• the view that power resides within subunits able
  to control the greatest share of valued
  organizational resource
• All subunits may contribute to an organization,
  but the most powerful are those that contribute
  the most important resources. Controlling the
  resources other departments need puts a subunit
  in a better position to bargain for the resources
  that it requires

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The Resource Dependency Model An Example
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MENDETEKSI POWER

• PERTANYAAN YANG DAPAT DIAJUKAN
• SIAPA YANG MENGAMBIL MAYORITAS KEPUTUSAN?
• JABATAN APA SAJA YANG DIINCAR KEBANYAKAN
  KARYAWAN?
• JABATAN APA SAJA YANG DIHINDARI KEBANYAKAN
  KARYAWAN?
• BAGIAN MANA DALAM ORGANISASI YANG MEMILIKI HAK
  VETO UNTUK MENETAPKAN KEPUTUSAN BAGI BAGIAN LAIN?
• SIAPA SAJA MANAJER YANG PALING BERPENGARUH?

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Psychological Positions in Organization
IM OK YOURE OK IM NOT OK, YOURE OK
These organizational members are effective and confident. They take a positive, constructive approach toward others. In group they are willing to lead, but they do not dominate. They value others and their input. They use conflict positively, focusing on the task or goal. These managers trust their employees and judge them by their performance, not their sex or race. Although they recognize that misunderstanding arise because of cultural differences, they seek opportunities to build cooperation These organizational members feel anxious and insecure. They want to withdraw from others. They often are discouraged, and they see themselves less favorably than others. In groups, they avoid leadership and often defer to others who have more seniority or tenure. Historically, many women and minorities have perceived themselves in this position.
IM OK YOURE NOT OK IM NOT OK YOURE NOT OK
These organizational members are egoistical and feel superior. Their actions are often arrogant, condescending and paternalistic. In groups, they dictate the agenda and discourage interruption and disagreement. This position drives people away, and workers who attend meetings run by these managers are glad when the meetings are over so that they can get away from this type of boss. People in the dominant subgroup often show these behaviors in regards to those in other subgroup. These organizational members are depressed and hopeless. They often expect to fail and give up easily. When these managers are in charge, meetings become depressing because these managers do not plan or design creative strategies. This position believes that you get nowhere with people.
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CARA INDIVIDU MEMANDANG DIRI SENDIRI DAN ORANG
LAIN

• Cara memandang diri sendiri
• IM NOT OK
• IM NOT OK
• IM OK
• IM OK

• Cara memandang orang lain
• YOURE NOT OK
• YOURE OK
• YOURE NOT OK
• YOURE OK

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EMPOWERMENT

• Empowerment
• (Conger and Kanungo)
• ?a process of enhancing feelings of self efficacy
  among organizational members through the
  identification of conditions that foster
  powerless and through their removal by both
  formal organizational practices and informal
  techniques of providing efficacy information
• encouraging and/or assisting individuals and
  groups to make decisions that affect their work
  environment
• the passing of responsibility and authority from
  managers to employees (Greenberg Baron, 2003)

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The Empowerment Continuum Relinquishing Control
is a matter of degree(Greenberg Baron, 2003)
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Increasing your effectiveness in empowering others

1. When you delegate responsibility, make certain
   you are also delegating authority to go along
   with
2. Be prepared to give up your managerial parent
   role and assume a partner role
3. Assure your subordinates through words and deeds
   that it is OK to make mistakes
4. Information sharing is important.
5. Provide training opportunities so employees can
   develop skills to successfully perform new job
   responsibilities
6. Performance feedback is always important it is
   particularly important for newly empowered
   employees.

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What should you do tomorrow ?

• Communication competencies for managing
  interactively
• Interactive managers are able to
• Make people and their knowledge accessible
  throughout an organization or business web
• Share power with people at all levels of an
  organization
• Design on-line and physical environments that
  enhance collaboration
• Create effective rituals and experiences that
  build cultures
• Actively use key interpersonal skills
• Make information available, useful, and enticing
  to variety of stakeholders
• Use stories in innovative ways to both share and
  capture knowledge
• Resolve hidden conflict between actions and words
• Listen to whole organization
• Engage people across organizational boundaries

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SHARE POWER

• Sharing power is a business necessity
• Power follows ability, not seniority
• Sharing power from above
• Sharing power from below
• Everyone is responsible for sharing power, not
  just leaders
• Technologies such as e-mail, voting software,
  augmented meetings, and on line discussion
  groups can help you share power
• Avoid paternalistic messages and show trust in
  employees by sharing information

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PRAKTEK POLITIK

• usaha-usaha untuk menggunakan power guna
  mempengaruhi proses pengambilan keputusan
• perilaku mementingkan diri sendiri tanpa
  mempertimbangkan untuk kebaikan orang lain atau
  organisasi

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POLITICAL STRATEGIES AND TACTICS

• Organizational Politics
• Actions by individuals that are directed toward
  the goal of furthering their own self-interest
  without regard for the well-being of others or
  their organizations
• all about actions not officially approved by an
  organization that are taken to influence others
  to meet ones personal goals
• Political Behavior ? behavior outside the normal
  power system, designed to benefit an individual
  or a sub unit
• Behavior that usually is outside the legitimate,
  recognized power system
• Behavior that is designed to benefit an
  individual or subunit, often at the expense of
  the organization in general
• Behavior that is intentional and is designed to
  acquire and maintain power

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Research on Politics

• Study of political behavior in the electronics
  industry in Southern California
• 87 managers
• - 30 CEO
• - 28 higher level staff managers
• - 29 supervisors
• were interviewed and asked about a number of
  aspects organizational political behavior.
• Among other questions, the managers were asked
  to describe the personal characteristics of
  organizational members who were effective
  politicians

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13 Personal Characteristics of Effective
Organizational Politicians

1. Articulate (pandai mengemukakan pendapat)
2. Sensitive
3. Socially adept (memiliki kemampuan adaptasi
   tinggi)
4. Competent
5. Popular
6. Extroverted
7. Self confident
8. Aggressive
9. Ambitious
10. Devious (licik)
11. Organization person (memiliki bakat organisasi)
12. Highly intelligent
13. Logical

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THE ANTECEDENTS OF POLITICS WHY AND WHEN IT
OCCURS
Personal Characteristics High Machiavellianism
High Self-Monitoring Ambition
Extraversion Popularity

Organizational Politics
Organizational Factors Ambiguous Roles, Goals
Scarce Resources History of
Political Behavior High Centralization
Conflicting Goals Across Units or Subunits
Organizational Maturity or
Complexity
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THE ANTECEDENTS OF POLITICS WHY AND WHEN IT
OCCURS

• Personal and Organizational variables
• Personal Characteristics high Machiavellianism,
  high self-monitoring, ambition, extraversion,
  popularity
• Organizational Factors ambiguous roles, goals,
  scare resources, history of political behavior,
  high centralization, conflicting goals across
  units or subunits, organizational maturity or
  complexity
• Politics in Human Resource Management
• such as performance appraisal, personnel
  selection, and compensation decisions
• Politics and the Organizational Life Span
• the use of political practices in organizations
  is likely to be affected by its degree of
  maturity

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POLITICAL TACTICS WHAT FORMS DO THEY TAKE?

• Gaining control over and selective use of
  information
• Cultivating a favorable impression ? image
  building (1) dressing for success, (2)
  associating oneself with the successful
  accomplishments of others, (3) simply calling
  attention to ones own successes and positive
  characteristics
• Building powerful coalitions
• Blaming and Attacking other finding a scapegoat
• Associating with powerful others
• Creating obligations and using reciprocity

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PLAYING POLITICS

• Political Influence Tactics
• Individuals and groups engage in political
  behavior in order to influence the perceptions or
  behaviors of other individuals and groups
• Based on research ? 9 specific tactics used by
  individuals to influence their superiors,
  coworkers, and subordinates to do what they
  wanted to do
• Consultation
• Rational persuasion
• Inspirational appeals
• Ingratiating tactics
• Coalition tactics
• Pressure tactics
• Legitimating
• Personal appeals
• Exchange tactics

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• TACTICS OF SOCIAL INFLUENCEGETTING TO YES

• CONSULTATION asking for participation in
  decision making or planning a change
• RATIONAL PERSUASION using logical arguments and
  facts to persuade another that a desired result
  will occur
• INSPIRATIONAL APPEAL arousing enthusiasm by
  appealing to anothers values and ideals
• INGRATIATION the process of getting someone to
  do what you want by putting that person in a good
  mood or getting her/him to like you
• COALITION-BUILDING seeking the assistance of
  others, or noting the support of others
• PRESSURE seeking compliance by using demands,
  threats, or intimidation
• LEGITIMATING pointing out ones authority to
  make a request, or verifying it is consistent
  with prevailing organizational policies and
  practices
• PERSONAL APPEAL appealing to anothers feelings
  of loyalty and friendship before making a request
• EXCHANGE promising some benefits in exchange for
  compliance with a request

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PLAYING POLITICS

• Impression Management
• ? the actions individuals take to control the
  impressions that others form of them.
• Research suggests that a significant part of
  behavior in organizations is motivated by the
  desire of organization members to be perceived by
  others in certain ways
• Effective impression management can be quite
  useful.
• e.g. the employment interview
• Many impression management tactics are designed
  to emphasize the positive.
• e.g. self promotion
• Others impression management tactics may be aimed
  at reducing negatives.
• e.g. providing an excuse for why you made
  mistake ? may be designed to further the
  impression that the error was beyond your control
• self handicapping ? any actions taken in advance
  of an outcome that is designed to provide either
  an excuse for failure or a credit for success

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ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS ITS EFFECTS

• Adverse Effects of Organizational Politics
• when the level of political behavior is high in
  organization, job satisfaction and organizational
  commitment may suffer with the result that good
  people decide to leave and seek employment
  elsewhere. Clearly this is a very negative effect
  of organizational politics.

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ETHICS, POWER, AND POLITICS

• WHAT, IF ANYTHING, IS UNETHICAL ABOUT
  ORGANIZATIONAL POLITIS?

• Political Antics Top the Most Unethical List
• Hiring, training, or promoting based on
  favouritism
• Allowing differences in pay due to friendships
• Sexual harassment
• Gender discrimination in promotion
• Using discipline in consistently
• Not maintaining confidentiality
• Gender discrimination in compensation
• Non-performance factors used in appraisals
• Arrangement with vendors leading to personal gain
• Gender discrimination in recruitment or hiring

potentially political behaviour
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ASSESSING THE ETHICS OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

• The more power an individual has, the more
  tempted s/he is to use that power toward immoral
  or unethical purpose
• The ethics of organizational politics must
  satisfy three moral principles
• Criterion of utilitarian outcomes.
• Utilitarian outcomes are only selfish
  interests promoted?
• Criterion of individual rights.
• Individual rights are privacy rights
  respected?
• Criterion of distributive justice
• Distributive justice is it fair?
• What does a manager do when a potential behavior
  cannot pass the three criteria?
• The behavior may still be considered ethical in
  the particular situation if it passes the
  criterion of overwhelming factors.

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Guidelines for Determining Ethical Action
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How to combat Organizational PoliticsAbolishing
organizational politics completely may be
impossible but managers can limit its effect.
Some of the most successful tactics are
summarized here
SUGESSTION DESCRIPTION
Clarify job expectation Open the communication process Be a good role model Do not turn a blind eye to game players Political behavior is nurtured by highly ambiguous conditions. To the extent managers help reduce uncertainty (e.g. by giving precise work assignments), they can minimize the likelihood of political behavior People have difficulty fostering their own goals at the expense of organizational goals when the communication process is open to scrutiny. It is hard to get away with anything when the system is open for all to examine Employees model the behavior of higher ranking officials. Accordingly, an openly political manager may encourage subordinates to behave in the same way Immediately confront an employee who attempts to take credit for anothers work. Managers who do not do so send a message that kind of behavior is acceptable
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USING POWER TO MANAGE EFFECTIVELY

• Jeffrey Pfeffer ? several considerations that are
  important in using power to manage effectively
• Recognize that there are multiple interests in
  virtually every organization
• Know what position relevant individuals and
  groups hold with respect to issues important to
  you
• Understand that to get things done you must have
  power, and in the case of those who oppose you,
  you must have more power than they do
• Recognize the strategies and tactics through
  which organizational power is developed and used