Title: Introduction to crop cultivation College of agronomy
1Introduction to crop cultivation
- College of agronomy, Sichuan agricultural
university - Professor Yang Wen-Yu
2 Chapter 1 Introduction Section 1
Characters, tasks and research methods of crop
cultivation
- Character and task of crop cultivation
As an application science, crop cultivation is
to research the law of crop development,formation
of yield and quality, the relationships between
them and circumstances,and technology. The
science will make great progress in increasing
yield, stabilizing production , improving quality
, high performance,ecology and security.Crop
cultivation is to develop the potentiality of
variety by means of artificial combination of
variety and method .
3- To accomplish the task of cultivation, we
should master a series of knowledge about crop
cultivation. Firstly, knowledge firmly relative
to crop, circumstance, method secondly,
knowledge about what conditions crops need. We
should know how to choose and create proper
circumstances to meet with the request of crops.
All these are critical questions of rational crop
distribution according to local situations and
crops. So to master these cultivation techniques
and apply fit method will help to control crop
development , yield and quality formation. - Characters and research methods of crop
cultivation - Characters Complexity , seasonal, regional ,
fluctuation - Research methods bio-observation method,
development research method, growth and
development research method
4 Section 2 Origin and birthplace of crop
- Origin of agriculture Origin of
agriculture is the greatest change in the history
of human beings and has great breakthrough .
Methods of cultivation took place from B.C.5000
to B.C.7000, from gathering wild plants to
growing plants with their own hands, and from
fishing and hunting wild animals to raising
animals by themselves. - The earliest growing plants in the world
People in the southwest of turkey ever began to
cultivate barley and wheat in 5000 B.C. Broomcorn
millet and foxtail millet were grown in Huanghe
river valley at the New Stone Age. People in the
Changjiang river valley commonly grew rice before
60007000 years. Aruba people in Latin America
have depended on food production greatly since
4000 B.C, and they grew potato, maize, cucumber
and legume etc. Along with races in African
Sahara migrated south they cultivated sorghum
etc. from 5000 B.C to 3000 B.C.
5- China is one of the original centers of
crops in the world - China is one of the ancient agricultural
centers that developed independently, and also
original centers of crops and diversity centers
in the world. - The crops originating in China
- Rice, wheat, naked oats, six-edge barley,
broomcorn millet, Chinese sorghum, soybean,
buckwheat, bitter buckwheat, Chinese yam(??),
rape, hemp(??), ramie(??), bluish dogbane(??),
Chinese sugarcane and Chinese milk vetch(???)etc.
6- The crops introduced from mid-Asia and India
areas Broad bean, pea, mung bean, black mung
bean(???), sesame(??), safflower(??)and
Lucerne(??)etc. - The crops introduced from Asia, Africa and
Europe after A.D Oats, rye, hard grain wheat,
taper wheat(????), African sorghum, , millet
pea(??), castor oil plant(??), cotton plant and
three-leaf grass etc. - The crops introduced from America maize,
sweet potato, potato, kidney bean(????), peanut,
sunflower, upland cotton, sea-island cotton,
sisal hemp(??)and tobacco etc.
7Section 3 Diversity and classification of crop
- Diversity and protection of crop
- Plant diversity
- Crop diversity
- Plant diversity are facing threat and we
should protect them. - Tame and creation of crop
- Collected wild plants
- Planted them
- Selected some of them
- Bred new crop
8- Category of crops
- Classification according to the physiological
and ecological features of crops - Category according to temperature condition for
crops warmth-liking crop (10?) and
chilling-endurance crop (13?) - Classification according to the reaction of
crop to photoperiod long-day plant (LDP, this
kind of plant blossoms when sunshine day becomes
long), short-day plant (SDP, this kind of plant
blossoms when sunshine day becomes short),
neutral plant (this kind of plant can blossoms
under any sunshine time) and certain day-length
plant (this kind of plant blossoms only under
certain day length).
9- Classification according to the carbon
dioxide assimilation ways of crops C3 crop
and C4 crop - Category according to the different sowing time
crop sowing in spring, crop sowing in summer,
and crop sowing in autumn as well as crop sowing
in winter in south of china - Classification according to the combination of
crop uses with botany system - Grain crop (or edible crop)
- Cereal crops
- Legume crops
- Tuber crops (or root-stem crops)
10- Economic crops fiber crops, oil crops ,
sugar crops and other crops (herbs and some of
them are hobby crops) - Feed and green manure crops Lucerne(??),,
Chinese milk vetch(???), sweet clover(???),
sesbania(??),and three-leaf grass(???)etc. are
common in bean family. Sudanese grass(???), rye
grass(???), brome-grass(???)etc are common in the
grass family. In addition, such as red
duckweed(??), water lettuce(???), water
hyacinth(???)and water peanut(???)etc are both
green manure crop and feed crop.
11- Some crops may have several uses, e.g.
soybean are both edible and oil crop, flax(??)are
both fiber crop and oil crop, maize are edible ,
ensilage(feed) and economic, potato are both
grain and vegetable, the flowers of
safflowers(??)are medical materials and its seeds
are oilseeds. So the classification above is not
absolute. The same crop, according to need, can
be classified into different category
sometimes. - Sustainable agriculture First,we develop
production in order to meet with contemporary
request.Second, we should not damage environment
when we develop production . We should make use
of resources for ever.
12Chapter 2 The growth and development of
cropSection 1 The characters of crop growth
and development
- Notion of crop growth and development
- Growth is the non-invertible quantity variation
process, which means increasing of crop
organ,tissue and cell on volume,weight, and
quantity.Growth of vegetative organ, such as
root, stem, and leaf, maybe balanced in the way
of size, weight, and amount.
13Development is the process of differentiation of
crop cell, tissue, and organ.That means the
quality change of crop morphology,construction
and function. Sometimes, the process is
invertible. For example, differentiation of ears
and flower buds, development of vascular,
production of tillers,development of stoma.
14- The process of crop development
- The notion of S growth process
- 1.low increasing phase Cells of seeds are
in the phase of fission(??)and protoplasm(???)accu
mulation, the growth is slow. - 2.Fast increasing phase Cell volume will
amplify in the way of logarithmic function
gradually, because substances synthesized by
cells may synthesize more substances. And the
more cells are, the faster growth will be. - 3.Decelerating increasing phase Cell growth
will increase steadily, usually keeping the
highest increasing ratio. - 4. Slow decreasing phase Cell growth begin to
decrease, due to cell mature and senescence.
15(No Transcript)
16- The application of S growth process
- We ought to notice carefully the situation of
seedlings during the growth and development of
crop, make crops have their own growing situation
and growing progress toward high yield.
Meanwhile, the sigmoid curve may also be regarded
as one standard which can be used to examine
whether the growth and development of crop is
normal. - Every measure to promote or control the growth
of crop should be applied before the quickest
growth stage comes. - Different organs of crop have different growth
and development speed through S growth process.
Therefore when we control the growth and
development of some organ we should pay attention
to the influences of this measure on other
organs.
17- The growth period and growth stage of crop
- The growth period of crop
- The notion of the growth period of crop the
total days of crop growth and development from
sowing to harvesting is regarded as the field
growth period of crop, which is counted by day.
The accurate calculating method of the growth
period of crop ought to be the days from seed
emergence to crop ripening or harvesting. -
18- The length of the growth period of crops mainly
depends on gene types and growth conditions of
crop. - The relationship between growth period of crop
and yield of crop Usually, the production
capability of single plant for early maturing
crop is low and the production capability of
single plant for late maturing crop is high .
However, it is not absolute.
19- The growth stage of crop
- Throughout the life circle of crop, due to
the influence of genetic and environmental
factors, the morphological characters and
physiological features would have a series of
changes.According to these changes, especially
the obvious changes of morphological features,the
whole circle of crop growth can be divided into
several phases , or several stages .
20- Rice and wheat usually are divided into
seedling stage, tiller stage, jointing stage,
boot stage, ear stage, florescence and maturity. - Maize normally is divided into seedling stage,
jointing stage, big flared mouth stage, ear
stage, silking stage and maturity.
21- Bean crops are divided into seedling
emergence stage, branching stage, florescence,
bearing pod stage, seed swelling stage and
maturity. - Cotton is normally divided into seedling
emergence stage, squaring stage, flowering and
boll stage and boll opening stage. - Rape is usually divided into seedling
emergence stage, squaring and bolting stage,
florescence and maturity
22 23(No Transcript)
24?????? ??????????????????????????????????????????
????????,???????????,??????????????? The
phenological period of crop The growth period
of crop is decided by its beginning and ending
phenological period. The phenological period
means the growth and development of crop shows
morphological characters under a certain outside
conditions, then a concrete standard is
formulated by people in order to to
scientifically master the growth and development
process of crop.
25- Rice
- ??????????,?????
- Seedling emergence un-complete leaves break
through bud-sheath, whose color turns green. - ???????????lcm?
- Tiller the first tiller comes out from
bud-sheath about 1cm. - ????????????,???lcm,???2cm?
- Jointing the first joint of stem extends,
the first joint of stem for early rice reaches
1cm, the first joint of stem for late rice
reaches 2cm. - ????????????????
- Booting the leaf-pillow of flag-leaf
completely shows over the leaf-pillow of next
leaf.
26 ????????????lcm? Earring the spike-tip of
rice spike put forth 1cm from the leaf-sheath of
flag-leaf. ???????????????,????,??????????
Milky mature the contented-substances of seeds
for mid-part spike, which show milky syrup form
and have the sensation of hard substances when we
press them with hand, are full of grain husk
shells. ?????????????,??????,??????? Wax
mature the contented substances of mid-part of
rice spikes are thick and sticky, which have
solid sensation when we press with hand and dont
show milky form substances. ??????,?????Maturi
ty grain seeds turn yellow and rice quality
becomes hard.
27- Cotton
- ???????
- Seedling emergence Cotyledons spread.
- ???????????3cm?
- Squaring The bud-leaf of the first bud
reaches 3cm - ????????????
- Florescence The first flower bud of the
first fruit- branch blossoms - ????????
- Boll opening One boll opens and shows white
fibers.
28- Soybean
- ???????
- Seedling emergence Cotyledons come up.
- ??????????
- Branching The first branch appears.
- ?????????
- Florescence The first flower blooms.
- ??????2cm???
- Bearing podThe length of young pods reaches more
than 2cm. - ??????,????????
- Swelling (or bulging) seeds Pods become flat,
seed obviously project. - ?????????,??????,?????????
- Maturity Pods show intrinsic colors and have
split-pods when pressing them with hands or have
sound when waving the plant.
29Section 2 The organ-formation of crop
- ??seed sprouting
- Seeds of crop
- ?????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????,????????3???? - Seeds in the meaning of botany are sexual
propagating organs, which develop from the
fertilized ovules.Seeds for crop production just
mean these sowing seeds which could be used to
propagate plant, concluding three organs of
botany.
30- ?????????????????,?????????????????????
- The first kind of seeds seeds developing
from the fertilized ovules, such as the seed of
bean, cotton, rape, tobacco, etc. - ??????????????,?????????????????,?????????,?????
?? - The second kind of seeds fruits developing
from ovary, such as caryopsis of rice, wheat,
corn, Chinese sorghum, millet, achene of
buckwheat and sunflower, fruit of beet. - ???????????????,??????,??????,???????
- The third kind of seeds root or stem used to
propagate plants, such as root tuber of sweet
potato, stem tuber of potato, stem joints of
sugarcane.
31- ????????
- Seed sprouting phase of crop
- Seed sprouting contain three phases,
imbibition, germination,seed sprouting. - ?? ???????????,?????????????????????,??????????
???????????? - Imbibition Seeds absorb water completely
and reach to the statement of saturation.
Starch, protein and vegetable fat are hydrolyzed
respectively into soluble sugar , amino acid,
glycerine, etc, at the base reaction of some
enzyme.
32?? ??????????????,????????????,?????????????????
??????????????,????,???????,????????Germination
These substances above were transferred to all
parts of crop, then could be transformed and
synthesized structure substances of
embryo.Embryo growth depends on structure
substances. Radicle is the earliest growth part
and comes out from seed coat when it grows into
certain length. Lastly, the appearance of white
shoot top shows that the phase of germination has
completed.
33?? ????,?????,???????????????,????????????,??????
??Sprouting After germinating ,embryo continue
to grow.That Cereal radicle reaches to the
length of seed,and plumule reaches to the half
length of seed, means that seeds begin to
sprout.
34??????? ??????,???????????????,??????,???????????
??????The conditions of seeds sprouting
Whether seed could sprout firstly depends on the
germinating capacity of seed. Besides the own
factors, water, temperature and air are the major
conditions of seed sprouting.
35?? ???????????????????????,????????????,???????15
0160,???137??????????????????,????220?240?
Water Absorbing water is the first step of
seeds sprouting. Seeds of different crops have
different quantities of absorbing water. The
seeds containing more starch absorbs less water
, e.g. wheat 150160, maize 137. While seeds
contains more protein and fat they can absorb
more water , such as soybean, 220240.
36- ?? ???????????????????,??????????????????????????
??????????,???????,????????????????????24?,
1522?, 3035???1012? ,2226?
,3235??Temperature Seed sprouting needs the
participation of a series of enzymes, and the
catalysis of enzymes has close relations with
temperature. Seed sprouting of different crops
need different the lowest, suitable and highest
temperature, even the same crop has difference
due to different ecotypes, varieties or strains.
E.g. wheat 24?, 1522?, 3035?. Maize 1012?,
2226?, 3235?.
37?? ????????,???????????????????????????,?????????
???????????????????,???????????????,??????????????
? Air Exuberant material metabolism and
material transport, etc, request the insurance of
atrobic respiration as a result oxygen is
necessary for seeds to sprout. Seed sprouting of
Different crops needs different oxygen degree,
such as peanut, soybean and cotton etc. , they
contain more fat, request more oxygen than
other crop seeds when sprouting.????????????.
In addition, seed sprouting of some crops needs
light.
38?????????? Seed longevity and dormancy ?????
??????????????????????????,???13?,???????????1?,?
??????????????2??????????????,????????611????????
???????????Seed longevity namely is the time
from seeds harvesting to losing the capacity of
germination. Most of seeds have shorter
longevity, which is normally 13 years, e.g. seed
longevity of peanut is only 1 year, seeds
longevity of wheat, rice and soybean etc are 2
years. Also seeds longevity of broad beans and
mung beans seeds longevity could reach 6 years.
The length of seed longevity has close relations
with storage conditions.
39????? ?????????,??????????????????????,??????????
?????????????,??????????,???????????Seed
dormancy Phenomenon of crop seeds and organs
applied to propagate stopping sprouting
tentatively is regarded as seed dormancy under
the appropriate conditions of sprouting.
Dormancy, which is quite common among wild
plants, while less for crops, is a kind of
adaptation of crop to bad circumstances.
40- ????????????
- Reasons and dealing methods of seed dormancy
- ???? ??????????,???????????,???????????????????
?????,????,????? - The later ripening of embryo later ripening
of embryo is the main reason of seed dormancy.
Embryo issues are not ripening physiologically,
which have no capacity of sprouting. This kind of
seeds could sprout through dealing with low
temperature and water that could promote late
ripening and make seeds sprout -
41?? ????,???????,???,?????,???????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????,??????Hard
seed The peel of hard seed is waterproof and
airproof, so seeds do not sprout, which caused
dormancy. For instance, bean crops easily produce
hard seed under the arid, high temperature and
more nitrogen . Usually we can utilize machine to
graze seed peel, such as ethyl alcohol, or use
chemical substances ,such as concentrated
sulphuric acid, etc, to deal with seeds peels so
as to fuse seeds peels and enhance their
permeability.
42??????? ???????????????????????,???????????????,?
?????????????????????????????????????,??????The
materials of restraining sprouting e.g.
abscisic acid (ABA), phenol-type compound and
organic acids etc. In the case, we are able to
rescind dormancy by changing light, temperature,
water and air etc or applying plant hormones
such as gibberellin (GA3), cytokinin (CTK, CK),
ethylene , hydrogen peroxide solution and
nitrate etc to deal with dormancy.
43??The growth of root
- ????? ?????????????????????????????????? ?
- The root system of crop the root system
of crop evolves from first roots, secondary roots
and adventitious roots. The root system of crop
can be divided into 2 kinds. - ????? ???????????(???)??????????????????,???1???
?,???????37???,???????,?????????????,????? - Monocotyledon the root system of
monocotyledon belongs to fibrous root system,
which is composed of seed-roots and secondary
roots produced on the stem-joints. Seed grows one
first-root firstly when sprouting, then some grow
37 lateral roots. Along with the growth of
seedlings, the stem-joints of basic part grow
some secondary roots.
44????? ???????1?????????????????????????,????????
????????,?????,??????????,??????Dicotyledon
the root system of dicotyledon belongs to taproot
system, which is composed of one flourishing main
root and all different levels roots. Seed-root
spreads continuously, finally becomes main root.
Main root, which is more well-developed,
gradually differentiates and grows lateral roots,
branch-roots and tiny roots etc that become
tinier step by step and then form taproot system.
45- The growth of root
- ????????????????????,????????,??????????,?????????
????,??????? - Roots quantity of cereal crops root-system
increases continuously along with the increasing
of tillers, and the horizontal growth becomes
obvious, and turns to depth spread after
jointing, and then reaches the greatest value at
booting or earing stage, later decreases
gradually.
46?????????????????????,??????,???????,??????????,??
???? 90?????020cm??? ? Dictoyledon root-system
such as cotton, soybean etc also forms step by
step, which grows slowly in seedling stage,
accelerates progressively after squaring period,
the root-quantity reaches the greatest value at
florescence, later root growth becomes slow. 90
roots are distributed mainly under earthen layer
020cm. ???????? The factors affecting root
growth ???????????????????????? ? Soil
resistance, soil water, soil temperature, soil
nutrients and soil oxygen etc.
47????????
48? ?The growth of stem
- Crop stems
- ??????? ?????,????,???????????????????,??????????
?,?????????????????????,??????????,?????,?????????
?????????????,?????????????????????,??????????????
????,???????????????????? - Monocotyledon stems most monocotyledon stems
are circular and hollow, also some cereal crops
stems are rich with piths and become solid. The
stems are composed of lots of joints and knots.
Many leaves grow in stems. The stem-joint knots
of cereal crops basic part are pretty short and
dense, and near the soil surface, which are
called tiller-joints. Axillary buds growing in
tiller-joints can grow up new stems under
suitable conditions, namely tillers. Tillers
growing up from main-stem leaf-axles are called
first level tillers, tillers growing up from
first level tiller are called second level
tillers, we may reason out the rest by analogy.
Cereal crops on-soil joints usually dont branch.
49- ??????? ??????,??,?????????????????????,?????????
????????????,??????????????????,??????????????????
???,??????,??????,??????,????,??????,?????????????
??????????,??????????????? ? - Dictoyledon stems Most are nearly
circle,solid, compose of stem and stem joints.
Branches growing up from main stem are regarded
as first level branches, branches growing up from
the first level branch are regarded as second
branches, we can reason out the rest by analogy.
In every new-leaf leaf-axle of cotton main stem
has 2 buds, the bud in the middle called first
bud, which grows up leaf branch that is
single-axle branch, another bud is regarded as
vice-bud, which grows up fruit-branch that is
axles-branch. Branches growing from several lower
parts joints of cotton main stem usually are
leaf-branches. Branches growing from middle and
higher parts of main stem normally are
fruit-branches.
50Growth of crop stems??????,?????????S???????????
????????????????????????,????????????,????????????
???As for as the whole plants are concerned, the
getting higher process of stem displays sigmoid,
cereal crops stems mainly depend on fusion and
spread of every knot basic parts
separating-growing-issues cells between 2 parts
which makes every knot extends and grows higher
gradually. The spreading method of knot is growth
between 2 parts.
51???????,???????????????????,?????,????,??????,????
??????????Dictoyledon stems major rely on the
division and spread of stem-tip-separating-issues
cells that make joints quantity increase, knots
elongate longer and plant grow higher gradually.
The elongation of knots is top-growth.
52- The conditions affecting the growth of stem
- ???? ??,???????,????,????(???)????,??,????(??
??)?? ?? ???????,??????????,?????????(??)???????
???????,??????????(??)????????????????????? - Growing density Less seedling, higher
single-plant nutritive areas, and enough light
would make plants have stronger capacity of
branching(or tillering). Conversely, more
seedlings, then the capacity of branching(or
tillering) is weak. -
53Applying fertilizer Enough base fertilizer,
seedling fertilizer and increasing soil
nitrogenous nutrient may promote the growth of
main stems and branches. If the proportion of
applied nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are
proper, then it would be more beneficial to the
growth of main stems and branches.Selecting
short-straw variety and well-developed mechanical
tissues variety will be more beneficial to stem
growth.
54??The growth of leaf
- Crop leaves
- ??????????????????????,????????????,????????(?
?)????? - Crop leaves may be divided into cotyledon
which is a part of embryo and grows in the
plumular axis and new leaf that is called leaf
and grows in every joint of main stem and
branch(tiller).
55????? ?????????????????????????????,????,???????
??,??????????????????????(??)???,???????????????4?
?,????????????,??????????,???????????Monocotyledo
n one cotyledon of cereal crops would form
plumule sheath wrapping up plumule, another
cotyledon resembles shield-shape and are called
shied-piece for short, which has the function of
digestion, absorption and transporting nutrient
when sprouting and seedlings growth. Cereal crop
leaves (new leaves) are simple leaf including 4
parts, leaf piece, leaf-sheath, leaf-ear and leaf
tongue. Leaf possessing leaf piece and leaf
sheath is regarded as complete leaf, leaf lacking
leaf piece is called as un-complete leaf, such as
the first leaf of rice is called as sheath-leaf.
56- ????? ??????????,?????????,??????????????????????
?????3????,?????,??????????????????????,????????
?????,????? - Dictoyledon Dictoyledon has 2 cotyledons
containing abundant nutritive substances which
have function of offering seeds sprouting and
seedling growth.The leaf is composed of leaf
piece, leaf-stalk and stipule, which is called as
complete leaf, such as cotton, soybean and peanut
etc. However, some dictoyledon crop lack stipule,
such as sweet potato, rape etc, some lack leaf
stalk, such as tobacco etc.
57- The leaf growth of crop
- ?(??)????????????????????????,??????????,?????????
??????????????????????? - Leaf originates from leaf-original-base of
stem-tip basic part. Stem-tip can unceasingly
differentiate leaf-original bases before becoming
reproductive organs. So usually there are
different size and different developing degree
leaf-original and young leaves.
58?????????????????????????,?????????????????????1/2
???????????????????????1/2???????????????????????
????????????The time from leafs sending out
photosynthetic matter to losing the capacity of
exporting is called functional phase. The
functional phase of cereal crops is normally
days from the time of leaf stable length to the
time of half-yellow leaf .The dicotyledons is
the days from leaf opening and flatting time to
the half-yellow leaf time. Because of different
crop varieties, leaf-position and cultivating
conditions, the length of leaf functional phase
is different. ??????????????????????????????
The differentiation, arise and spread of leaves
would be affected by light, temperature, water,
mineral nutrient etc..
59??Development of flower
- Differentiation of flower organs
- ??????????
- Differentiation of cereals young spikes
- ??????????????????????????????????????????,????
?????,?????????,???????????? - Cereals flower is regarded as spike. Flowers
of wheat ,barely and rye take on the spike
appearances. Flowers of rice, Chinese sorghum and
male flowers of corn take on the circle cone
appearances.Spike of foxtail millet is belong to
circle cone spike, but its stem of spike is short
and looks like spike appearance. - ???? Structure of spike
- ???? Differentiation of spike
60?????????? Bud differentiation of dicotyledon
????????,?????????????,??????????,????????????????
????????????????????? Flower of cotton is
single, flower of bean, peanut and rape is belong
to raceme tobacco flower is belong to circle
cone spike or raceme beet flower is belong to
complex raceme.All these flowers are composed
of pedicle, receptacle, calyx,corolla, stamen and
pistil,.???? Differentiation of flower
61?????????Spike of rice and flower of cotton
62?????????????? Differentiation of young spike of
wheat and rice and its characters
63 ?????????????? Bud differentiation phases of
cotton and rape and its characters
64 Blossom, pollination and fertilization ??
????????,?????????(?????)????????Blossom
namely is the phenomenon of flower opening and
mature stamen and pistil (or one of them) showing
out.?? ????????????????????????????,?????
Mature pollen-particles are transmitted to pistil
stigma from stamen another with the help of
external force, the process is called
pollination.
65?? ???,???????????????????,?????Fertilization
Male cell namely egg cell (or ovum) fuse with
sperm (or spermatozoon) mutually after
pollination, the process is called
fertilization.???????????????????????, ??,??,??
The factors affecting flower organ
differentiation, blossom, pollination and
fertilization nutritive factors, temperature,
water and weather, etc.
66??The development of seed and fruit
- ?????????,???????,??????????,????????????????????
????????????,????????????????????????????,????????
?????????????,??????????,????????????????????????
???????,????????????,?????????? - Seed develops from ovule . Embryo develops
from zygote . Newborn endosperm nucleus changes
into endosperm. Pearl-quilt wrapping ovule
develops into seed-peel. Zygote successively
differentiates into cotyledon, plumule, radicle
and plumular axis and forms new life. During the
course of newborn endosperm nucleus developing
into endosperm, accumulating and depositing
nutrients, the endosperms of beans, rape etc
would be absorbed by developing embryo, which
deposit nutrients with cotyledon, thereby forming
endosperm seeds without endosperm. But rice,
wheat and maize etc have well-developed endosperm
issues, endosperm cells could store up nutrients,
thereby forming seeds with endosperm.
67- ?????????,????????????????????????????????,???????
????????????,????????????(?????????)????????? - Fruit develops from ovary. Fruit development is
related to the incentive (or stimulus) of
fertilization and seed development. The fruit
part beside seed literally is composed of
external peel, middle-peel and internal peel.
Fruits characters are decided by the features of
middle-peel and internal-peel, such as pulps and
membranes, etc.
68???????????,???????????,??????????????,???????????
(????????????)?????????????(???????????),?????????
??????In the process of seed and fruit
development, besides the change of external
appearance and color, the internal chemical
compositions also change obviously, namely
dissolvable little molecule organic compound
transform into un-dissolvable big molecule
organic compounds (such as protein, fat and
starch etc).The water content of seed and fruit
also decreases gradually.
69- ????????????
- ????????????????,?????????????
??????????????????. - The factors affecting seed and fruit
development First, there should be enough
organic nutrients in plant body and organic
nutrients must be continuously transported to
seed and fruit, in addition, the influence of
temperature, soil water and mineral nutrients is
also vital.
70Section 3 Reaction of crop to temperature and
photoperiod
- ????????????????????????????,?????????????,???????
???,?????????????,????????????????????????,???????
????????????? - Different varieties of same crop have
different growth period. The same crop varieties
growing in different season, latitude and
elevation have different growth period, some
even affect normal blossom and mature. The major
reason for this is that crop variety has
different reaction characters to temperature and
light.In details, this is caused by different
reaction characters of crop to temperature and
photoperiod.
71- ????????? ??????????????????,?????????????,???????
????,?????????????????????????,???????????? - The reaction characters of crop to temperature
and photoperiod - Crops must be induced through a certain
temperature and photoperiod, then vegetative
growth could transform into reproductive growth,
then flower bud or young spike differentiation
can start, and after this plant can blossom and
bear fruit. This is regarded as the reaction of
crop to temperature and photoperiod.
72??????? ?????????????????????????????,???????????
??????,?????????????????? The basic features of
vegetative growth Reaction of crop to
temperature and photoperiod happens after certain
time of vegetative growth that is essential. The
essential period of vegetative growth is regarded
as basic period(or character) of vegetative
growth.
73The reaction character of crop to temperature
- ???????,?????????????,???????????????????,????????
????????????????,????????,??????? - Some two-year plants, such as winter wheat,
winter rye, winter rape etc, must be induced by
low temperature through a certain time in their
vegetative growth period, or some annual plants
such as rice etc must be induced by high
temperature through a certain time, then the
growth can be transformed into reproductive
growth.
74The reaction characters of crop to photoperiod
???????????????????,???????????,?????????????????
,??????????????3??? ????? ???????????The
differentiation and formation of flower-organs
need induction of a certain temperature, in
addition, induction of a certain photoperiod is
essential. The features of different crop
varieties requesting induction of a certain
photoperiod are regarded as the reaction
character of crop to photoperiod that normally is
divided into 4 types.
75- The basic vegetative growth of crop
- ????????????????????,????????????????????,???
??????????,??????(??)???????????????,?????????????
?????,??????????????????????????????1560?????????
?????????????????2427?? - Crop reproductive growth carries out on the
base of vegetative growth. Crop must have lowest
vegetative growth even though the temperature and
photoperiod conditions are suitable for crop
development, then crop could start
differentiation of young spike (or flower bud).
The vegetative growth period before reproductive
growth that is not shortened by induction of
temperature and photoperiod is called as basic
vegetative growth period, such as the range of
basic vegetative growth period for different rice
varieties is 1560 days, for cabbage-type rape
varieties is 24-27 days.
76 ???????????? ???????????? ????????????
??????? ???????
????? ????? ?????
?????? ?????? ??????
77The application of the reaction of crop to
temperature and photoperiod in crop production
- ??????? ?????????????,????????????????????.
- Application in introduction of variety
Because different areas have different
temperature and light ecological conditions, so
we ought to consider fully the reaction of crop
to temperature and photoperiod when we introduce
variety. - ??????? ???????????????,????????????????
- Application in cultivation The reaction of
crop to temperature and photoperiod should be
considered in the distribution of varieties,
sowing time,planting density, and fertilization
etc.
78- ??????? ??????????,???????????,?????????????????(
???)?,??????????,?????????????????????????????????
,?????????????????????????????,???????????????????
???????????,???????????????,??????,????? - Application in breeding We should put forward
the reaction of crop to temperature and
photoperiod according to local climate
conditions when we work out aim of crop breeding.
We may adjust sowing time according to the
reaction of parent to temperature and photoperiod
in order to make flowering of 2 parents meet
when we do crossing. We may decide whether
winter-reproduction or summer reproduction of
breeding material according to their reaction
to temperature and photoperiod so as to shorten
breeding process or accelerate seed reproduction.
In addition, if we need winter-wheat and rape to
be parents in spring wheat and rape areas in
China, we should deal winter parents with
verbalization, make them blossom normally in
spring wheat and rape areas, and then do
crossing.
79Section 4 The correlation of crop growth
- ???????????? ??????????????????????????????,?????
?????????,??????????,?????,????????? - Relations between vegetative growth and
reproductive growth The vegetative growth is
the base of reproductive growth, they have much
more paradox at the advancing stage side by side,
so we must promote them develop continuously. At
reproductive growth period, crop vegetative
growth still exists. For coordinating their
relations, we should master properly their growth
stages.
80?????????????? ?????????????????????,???????????
? ???????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????? Relationships between the
top and the root The two parts of crop
have close relations, namely usually as the
saying goes only deep roots can have more
leaves, strengthening roots before
strengthening seedlings . Substances of two
parts exchange mutually, the two parts keep a
certain proportion of weight. The influence of
environmental and cultivating measures on root
and top part is not coordinative.
81- ?????????
- Same spread relations of crop organs
- ????????????????????????????????????,????????
???,??????(???)?????????? - Organ-formation shows a certain
corresponding relations. Some organs grow or
extend lawfully in the same time, which is
regarded as same spread relations of crop organs.
These organs growing (or extending) at same time
are same spread organs.
82 Same spread relations among cereals organs
???????????????N-3?????????????????
??????,?N???,?(N?1)?????(N-2)??(N-3)?????????
Relations between mother-stem and tillers
Main-stem leaves and tillers display same spread
relations of N-3. Among different organs, N
leaf-piece, (N-1) leaf sheath and (N-2) leaf to
(N-3) leaf knot are same spread organs.
?????????? ????????????,?????????????,????????
??????N-3?Relations between top organs and roots
When rice, wheat tillers shows up,
adventitious roots would form at same time on the
same joint. The same spread relations between
leaves and roots also is N-3.
83- ?????????????????
- Simultaneous spread relations between young
spikes and vegetative organs of cereal crops - ?????????????????????????????
- We could infer the process of young spikes
development through utilizing the simultaneous
spread relations among organs. Methods most in
use at present as follows - ??? ??????????????????????????,??????1?,??????1?
? - Leaf age method We regard the leaf number
as target directly. During the spike
differentiation process of cereal crops,
basically once 1 leaf grows up,young spike
differentiation carries forward 1 stage after
their young spikes starting differentiation.
84- ????? ????????????????????,????????????????????
???,????,????,????????????,??????????????????????
??4?????????,??1?????1?????,????????1?? - Leaf age remainder method The whole leaves
of crop minus the growing-out leaves is leaf age
remainder. We simplify the development process
of rice young spike as bud differentiation,
branch differentiation, glum flower
differentiation,pollen mother cell formation and
meiosis and pollen solid.The simultaneous spread
relations between young spike development and
leaf growth is that when 1 leaf grows up, the
process of spike differentiation goes 1 stage
after the latter half period of leaf 4 from
above.
85- ????? ?????????(????)??????????,???????????(????
???/??????)100 - Leaf age index method The extended leaf
percentage of the total leaves is considered as
leaf age index. Leaf age indexthe extended
leaves of main stem /the total leaves of main
stem x100 - ???????? ???????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????? - Relation between individual and colony Crop
individual and colony both relate and restrict
mutually. Reasonable growing density is
beneficial to coordinative development between
individual and colony.We can promote crop yield
by adopting cultivating technological measures
through applying the automatic adjusting
mechanism of crop colony.
86Chapter 3 Formation of crop yield and quality
Section 1 Crop yield and its components
- ???? ????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????? - Crop yield The purpose of cultivating crops
is to get more products with economic value. Crop
yield namely the quantity of crop products,
normally crop yield may be divided into economic
yield and bio-yield.
87???? ??????,?????????????????,???????????????????
???????,??????????????(??????)? Bio-yield The
total output of all organic compounds producing
and accumulating through photosynthesis and
absorption, namely the total organic matter by
conversion of substances and energy throughout
the whole growth and development period.
Bio-yield usually does not contain root system
(except root-tuber crops ).
88- ???? ???????????????,?????????
- Economic yield The amount of harvest
products according to the cultivating purpose is
called economic yield. - ????????? ????????????,???????????????,??????????
?????????????????????????????,??????????????,?????
????????????? - Harvesting index The proportion of economic
yield making up bio-yield, namely the efficiency
of bio-yield turning into economic yield, is
regarded as harvesting index. The high economic
coefficient only indicates the proportion of
transporting bio-yield into economic products
organs, not means high economic yield. Normally,
the economic yield is positively relation with
bio-yield. - ???? ???????????????????
- Relations among economic yield, bio-yield and
harvesting index Economic yieldbio-yield
harvesting index
89- ?????? ?????????????????????,????????????????????
????????????? - yield components Crop yield is yield of
crop colony on per unit land area, namely which
is made up of individual yield or quantity of
product-organs. Crop yield may be divided into
several factors. - ?????????????????? ?????????????
- Yield components of cereal crops spike
number seeds per spike weight per seed, or
spikes glumes per spike bearing rate
weight per seed - ??????????????????????????????
- Yield components of bean Plant number
effective branches per single plant pods per
single-branch seeds per pod weight per seed
-
90- ??????????????????
- Yield components of potato plant number
potatoes per plant weight per single potato - ??????????????????????
- Yield components of cotton plant numbers
effective bolls per plant un-ginned cotton
weight per boll ginning cotton rate - ????????????????????????????
- Yield components of rape plant number
effective branches per plant fruits per branch
seeds per fruit weight per seed -
91?????????? ????????????,????????????????(??)????
???????????????????????,??????????????
Relations among yield components its hard that
yield components increase each other. Usually
they have negative correlation each other. The
negative correlations between plant density and
yield of single plant is obvious.The former of
yield components is the base of latter, and the
latter has a certain compensative function to the
former.
92(No Transcript)
93- ????????
- Forming feature of crop yield.
- ????????? ?????????????????????????????
???????????????????,????????????????????? - Forming feature of yield components
Formation of yield components conducts
successively and overlapping in different stages
of the whole growth period.Yield components have
automatic adjustment phenomenon during their
formation, which mainly reflects compensatory
effect on colony yield.
94????????? Accumulation and distribution of dry
matter ??????????????????????????????????????????
??? The process of yield formation contains
formation of photosynthetic organs, absorbing
organs and product-organs as well as the
formation, transportation and accumulation of
contents in product-organs. ??????????,??????????
????????????,??????????????On the part of matter
production, the formation of crop yield literally
is through photosynthesis directly or indirectly
and depends on the accumulation and distribution
of photosynthetic substance.
95- ?????????????????????????????????,????????????????
?????????????,??????????????????????????????????
????????,???????CO2??????????????????,??????,?????
?,??????,???????,???????????,???????,???????????? - The capacity of crop photosynthetic
productivity is closely related to photosynthetic
area, photosynthetic time and photosynthetic
efficiency. Photosynthetic area, namely green
surface area include leaf, leaf-sheath and the
surface of fruit which could engage in
photosynthesis.Among them the green leaf-area is
the main part of photosynthetic areas,
photosynthetic time is the time of
photosynthesis, photosynthetic efficiency is the
mg quantity of assimilating carbon dioxide (CO2)
or the g quantity of accumulating dry substances
per unit time and per unit leaf-area. Usually,
under suitable conditions, bigger photosynthetic
area, longer photosynthetic time, higher
photosynthetic efficiency, fewer non-productive
consumption of photosynthetic matter, more
reasonable distribution and utilization, would be
beneficial to getting high yield.
96- ????????????Logistic??(S???)??,???????????????
???????????? - Accumulative development of crop dry matter
follows logistic curve (or sigmoid) model, namely
through low increasing phase, logarithmic
increasing phase, increasing phase and slowing
phase. - ??????????????????????????
- Because of different species, varieties, growth
stages and cultivating conditions, dry substances
distribution is different.
97- ????Growth analysis
- ??????????????????????,????????,??????????????????
,?????????????????????????????? - The basic view of growth analysis method is
mainly to determine increasing of dry matters,
in addition to determining foliage areas,
calculating index of physiology function relative
to photosynthesis, comparing the difference
between growth and yield form of crop, varieties
and ecological circumstance.
98?????(RGR) ???????????????,???g/g.d?g/g????Rel
ative growth ratio weight increases per certain
time and plant weight, g/g.d or g/g.w????(NAR)
???????????????????? Net assimilation ratio dry
matter increases per leaf area and per unit
time.?????(LAP) ??????????(LAV)??????,?????????
?LAP leaf areas per dry matter weight,the
proportion of leaf area to plant dry matter
weight.
99- ????(SLA) ????????????,??????????,???????????????
???? - SLA SLA is also called leaf areas dry matter
weight. It is the ratio of leaf area to its dry
matter weight, and means the relative leaf
thickness in some degree. - ????(LWR) ?????????????????
- LWR LWR is the ratio of dry leaf weight to
dry matter weight of plant.
100?????(CGR) ?????????????,????????????????????????
CGR CGR is also called colony growth ratio.
It is showed with dry matter weight increasing
per unit time and per soil area. ?????(
LAI)???(LAD) ???m2.d??,????????????? LAD
LAD is the product of photosynthetic leaf area
and photosynthetic leaf time, the unit is m2.d
101Section 2 Source, current and sink theory of
crop and its application
- ? ???????,????????????????,??,???????????????????
?????,???????????????? - Source The formation of crop yield is in
fact through leaf photosynthesis, thereby, source
namely is the leaf to produce and export
photosynthetic assimilate. On the part of crop
colony, source is colony leaf-areas and
photosynthetic capacity. -
102??????????????????????????????????????,???????????
???????????????????????????????????????????
Photosynthetic matter of cereal crop is mainly
transported to spike, spikelet and flower etc
before blossoming, and partly deposited in stem,
leaf and leaf-sheath in order to meet need of
plant after blossoming. Photosynthetic matter is
directly supplied to product-organs after
blooming. Source assimilation has the feature of
transporting nearby organs.
103- ? ?????????????????????
- Sink namely the volume of product-organs and
the capacity of containing nutritive substances - ?????????????
- The potential capacity of sink is in the
course of sink formation. - ??????????????????????????
- The sustainable period and the speed of
grain being in the milk decide the capacity for
cereal crop seed to deposit substance .
104- ? ??????????????????????
- Current namely the development state and
the efficiency of transporting system in plant
body. - ??????????????????,??????????????????,????????????
?,??????????????????? - The major organs of current are leaves,
sheath and vascular system being in stem, among
them the spike-neck vascular bundle may be
regarded as the general passage of source linking
to sink, assimilate is transported through
phloem, thin wall cells of phloem are the major
issues to transport assimilate. - ???????????????????????????,??????????????
- Many factors can influence assimilate
transportation. The well-developed phloem is an
important factor that affects assimilate
transportation.
105- ???????????? ???????????????????,????????????,????
????? - Coordination of source, current and sink as
well as its application Formation of source,
current and sink, and elaboration of their
function are not alone, but related , promoted ,
sometimes replace mutually. - ????????,????????????????????????????,????????????
?????? - On the part of the relation between
source-organs and sink-organs, source is the
substance base of sink forming and enriching. - The functions of source and sink are
relative. Sometimes, one organ has double
functions. - ??????????,??????????????????????,???????????
- As far as the relations among source, sink
and current are concerned, the big or small of
source and sink obviously affects the direction,
rate and quantity of current, and has the pulling
force and thrusting force.
106 ?????????????????????????,??????????????????,????
??????? Source, current and sink form unified
entirety during crop metabolism activity and
yield formation, their balance developing
decides the crop yield and is the key factor to
control the yield.
107- ?????????????????,??????????,??????????????????,??
??????,????????????????,???????,???,??????????????
???????????,???????????????????????,??????????,???
????????????,??,????????????????????????????,?????
????????????????
108- Analyzing the restricting function of
source and sink under different yield level is
beneficial to reasonably apply cultivated
measures and increasing yield. Usually, when
yield level is low, inadequate source is the
dominant factor of increasing yield. Meanwhile,
less spikes per unit area and little sink
capacity are also the reason of low yield.
Increasing source and enlarging sink are the way
of increasing yield by increasing leaf area and
spikes. But when the leaf-area reaches certain
level, increasing spikes will make leaf area
surpass the suitable scope. At this
moment,increasing source would be to enhance
photosynthetic rate or to lengthen photosynthetic
time, enlarging sink should be changed from
increasing spikes to increasing seeds per spike
and seed weight. -
109Section 3 the potential yield of crop
- ????? ???????????????,??????????????????????,?????
???????? - Potential Productivity The yield of crop
under the ideal conditions, namely the yield
reached by developing the yield potentiality of
crop is regarded as potential productivity or
theoretical productivity . - ????? ????????????????,????????
- Practical productivity The yield under the
conditions in fact is called as practical
productivity .
110- Light, temperature and water resources and
crop productive potentiality - ?????? Light and temperature yield potentiality
- ??????? Light, temperature and water yield
potentiality - ???????? Light, temperature, water and fertilizer
potentiality - ??????????? ????????????????????????,??????,?????
???????????????????????????????,??????,????????
????? - Measures of increasing crop yield are
improving productive conditions, utilizing fully
crop intrinsic genotype diversity and making
better genetic improvement, and enhancing their
photosynthetic rate, Enhancing solar energy
amount intercepted by crop, decreasing
respiratory consumption, adopting advanced
cultivating technological measures, improving
cultivated conditions, and enhancing the
efficiency of crop to utilize solar energy.
111Section 4 The crop quality and its formation
- Notion of crop quality
- ??????????????,?????????????,?????????????????
???,???????????????????????,?????????????,???????
??,?????????????????????,????????,???????????????
?????????????? - Crop product quality means that it could
reach to the degree of people requirements, which
is relative to economic value of product. The
evaluating standard is different with different
product uses. As edible product, its nutrition
and edible value are more important than
others.As rude materials product, its fiber
quality is popular. We often take two measure
indexes, one is physical-chemical index, and the
other is morpholoical index. Every crop has
certain quality index system.
112??????? ????????????????????????? Grain product
quality can be divided into nutrition index,
edible quality, process quality and commodity
quality,etc.???? ??????????????????????????Edibl
e quality is relative with nutrition quality ,
steaming and boiling edible quality, process
quality and appearance quality.
113- ???? ?????????,??????????,??????????????????????,?
????????????? - Nutrition quality means nutrition value of
product, and is important aspect of product
quality. It is mainly decided by chemical
ingredients and their contents.Standard of
nutrition is different with the difference of
products. - ?????????????????????????
- Index of process quality and commodity
quality is different with different crop product.
114??????? ?????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????Ec
onomic crop quality mainly contains technology
quality and process quality. Fiber quality is
decided by fiber length, degree of thickness and
toughness oil crop nutrition, storage quality
and process quality are decided by content and
ingredients of seeds fat.???????
??????????????????????????? Forage crop quality
is mainly decided by protein contents ,amino
acid component, crude fiber content,etc.
115The physiological and biochemical foundations of
crop quality formation
??????????????????,???????????????????????????????
?????????????,????????????????????? Special
substances formed by crop decides its quality,
such as storage protein, fat, starch,
carbohydrate, fiber as well as special multiple
compounds, e.g. Quantity and quality of tannin,
vegetable alkali and terpene etc, whose quantity
and quality would be various due to different
crop varieties and environmental conditions.
116- ???????????????????????????????????,??????????????
???????????????????,?????????????,????????????????
,?????????Among the substances forming in crop,
carbohydrate, protein, fat and ash content are
dominant in quantity, but because of different
crops, these major compositions are different in
proportion. Carbohydrate is dominant in cereal
crops, fat and protein are dominant in oil crops,
bean crops and oil crops have similar protein
content, but fat content is fewer in bean crops
than in oil crops.