Indonesia * By 1870 all export crops were removed from the

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• Indonesia

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• Contents
• 1. Maps
• 2. A general timeline with information about
  early Indonesia European colonisation of Asia.
• 3. Dutch colonisation of the East Indies.
• 4. Plantation Crops
• 5. Nationalism
• 6. WWII
• 7. Post WWII
• 8. Independence
• 9. Recent Indonesian history

• You will need to take notes.
• Remember that various information will be
  repeated along the way.
• This is to help reinforce the information.

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Summary of Kingdoms

• Srivijaya, 7-13th Century, Java, Sumatra Malay
  Peninsula.
• Sailendras, 8 9th Century, Central Java.
• Mataram, 832 1042, Central Java.
• Janggala, 1042 1222, Central Java.
• Kediri, 1042 1222, Central Java.
• Singhasari, 1222 1292, Java, Sumatra Straits.
• Majapahit, 1292 1402, The Whole Thing.

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Timeline

• 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divided the
  non-European world between Spain Portugal
• 1511 Portuguese conquer Melaka (formerly
  Malacca), the great Malay trading port on the
  Straits of Melaka. Portuguese posts also
  established in the Spice Islands of Eastern
  Indonesia
• 1520 Spain -under Ferdinand Isabella,
  sponsored Magellans voyage. He reached the
  Philippines East Indonesia
• Also circumnavigated the globe

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Timeline (continued)

• 1565 Spanish established settlement in the
  Philippines
• 1570 Spanish capture of Manila they decided to
  stay in the Philippines
• By 17th century the State-supported Dutch East
  India Company (VOC) became the dominant European
  power in Southeast Asia.
• 18th century weakening of VOC power, defeat by
  the English in the Anglo Dutch War, 1781-4
• English gained more territorial power in India,
  surpassed Dutch in cartography maritime
  technology, in the profitable trade between
  India and China.

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Timeline (continued) 19th century Colonial
control gradually advances in Southeast Asia.

• The British consolidate their sphere of
  influence in the Malay Peninsula (British
  Malaya) Burma, use migrant labour (Chinese
  Indians in Malaya, Indians in Burma) to develop
  the export economy.
• the French establish control in Vietnam, Cambodia
  Laos
• (French Indochina)
• the Dutch extend their control over Indonesia
  (the Netherlands East Indies)
• in 1898 the Americans buy the Philippines from
  Spain following the Spanish-American War.

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Timeline 19th century (continued)

• Some important dates
• 1824 Anglo-Dutch treaty created Dutch British
  spheres of influence by a
• line drawn down the Melaka Straits.
• 1825-30 Dutch victory in the Java War
  beginning of forced delivery of crops
• such as coffee, sugar, indigo etc.

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Timeline 19th century (continued)

• 1857 Indian Mutiny British government
  established direct control in much of India
• 1858 Dutch began a forward move in Sumatra,
  the French also moved into Vietnam
• 1859-61 French began attacks on Vietnam in
  response to treatment of missionaries
• In fact the latter part of the 19th century
  consists of European conquests of SE Asia
  (Indochina, Burma, Philippines, Indonesia,
  Malaysia) India.

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Timeline 20th century

• Colonial introduction of Western education leads
  to the rise of a small group of elites aware of
  democratic developments overseas.
• They become leaders in new nationalist movements.
  
• The formation of the Communist Party in Russia
  and China has marked effects in the archipelago.
• Strong communist movements develop in Vietnam,
  Indonesia, among the Chinese in Malaya, in the
  Philippines.
• All colonial powers are strongly opposed to
  left-wing movements, give little hope for
  independence

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Timeline 20th century. WWII 1940-1945

• What happens in Europe has consequences in the
  colonies
• Britain, France the Netherlands vs Germany,
  Japan Italy
• Vichy France Nazi occupation. French lost
  Indochina to Japan
• 1941, December 7 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor
  
• 1941, December 8 US declared war on Japan
• 1941 December 8 Japanese invasion of Southeast
  Asia
• 1942 March S.E.Asia was under Japanese control.
  (not French Indochina Thailand)

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Timeline 20th century.
India Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Burma Malaya(
Malaysia) Indonesia The Philippines Laos
Cambodia Vietnam
African countries

• Post WWII is the period known as
  de-colonisation .

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Sugar and Spice and Everything Nice? Economic
Motives for Imperialism in Southeast Asia

• Positioned mid-way between major civilisations to
• the east and west
• Straits of Melaka (Malacca) only major waterway
• through the region until 16th century use of
• Straits of Sunda by Indian traders in 17th
• century by the Dutch (VOC)
• British in late 18th century used passage through
• eastern Indonesia to China via Sulu archipelago
• Prior to steamships in late 19th century,
  sailing ships subject to monsoon winds

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The Dutch in Indonesia

• Both the Dutch VOC (Vereenigde Oostandische
  Compagnie) (1602) English East India Company
  (1600) were interested in S.E. Asian trade.
• Conflict led to the Ambon Massacre in 1623 the
  withdrawal of the East India Company from the
  archipelago.
• The Dutch gradually gained control of the entire
  archipelago Ambon 1605, Malacca 1641, Aceh
  1667, Macassar 1669, Banten - 1682.
• The objective was trade Indian cottons for
  spices.

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Dutch East India Company Routesin the 17th and
18th Centuries
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Development of Trade, theLifeblood of Southeast
Asia

• Initially, Southeast Asia formed a maritime
  east-west trade that supplemented the silk road
  trade
• Southeast Asia a transit point
• Increasingly, Southeast Asian products came to
  supplement and later even became the primary
  products in international trade

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Southeast Asian Products in Demand
inInternational Trade Prior to 15th Century

• Medicinal products camphor, benzoin, cloves,
• rhinoceros horn
• Exotic products aromatic woods (eaglewood),
• rattans, kingfishers feathers, pearls, birds
• nests, tripang (sea cucumbers beche de mer)
• Other trade items tin (used as foil in Indian
• temples)

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Early Modern Period (c. 1450-c. 1800)

• Southeast Asia now regarded as major source of
• goods in international markets
• Return of Chinese traders in 1567, continuing
• Indian trade, temporary influx of Japanese
• traders, and arrival of Europeans (initially
• Portuguese and Spanish, then joined by Dutch
• British in the early 17th century)
• Period referred to as the Age
• of Commerce

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Colonisation of Island Southeast
Asia
By early 20th century all of present-day
Indonesia brought under Dutch control Aceh in
north Sumatra fought lost long war (1873-1912),
though the Dutch never re-entered the area
Malay Peninsula came under British control after
the Anglo-Dutch Agreement of 1824- a line through
the Straits of Melaka creating division
between present-day Malaysia Indonesia
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Colonisation of Indonesia

• The Dutch avoided direct administration until the
  mid 18th century. Control was exercised through
  local rulers who were also doubled as principal
  traders
• The system of leveringen began at end the 17th
  century Fixed amounts at fixed prices.
• Direct administration of areas growing coffee,
  sugar, indigo spices began in the 18th century.

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Colonisation of Indonesia (continued)

• The Dutch employed their navy to enforce a
  monopoly on trade with Europe.
• There was no effort to introduce religion,
  culture or education.
• Dutch trade practices did have the unintentional
  consequence of displacing the population
• One result was the rise of the Bugis pirates.

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Hermann Daendels

• Herman Daendels was appointed Gov-Gen of
  Indonesia by Napoleon from 1808-11 to improve
  defenses against the British and improve
  administration. He
• Centralised administration.
• Reduced graft and corruption.
• Established adat courts.
• Increased compulsory coffee production and
  established a monopoly on rice to raise funds.

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Thomas Stamford Raffles

• Gov-Gen Minto (India) led an invasion of Java in
  1811 and left Stamford Raffles in charge. He
  introduced major reforms.
• Permitted land ownership with tax rate based on
  fertility.
• Peasants could cultivate and sell crops of their
  choice, except coffee.
• Created an elaborate court system with jury
  trials.
• Dutch returned in 1816.

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Role of the Regent

• The Regent was the native VOC agent contracted to
  deliver export crops. He was subordinated to a
  governor-general, regional governor
  resident/comptroller. In turn, he appointed and
  supervised village chiefs who he was responsible
  to pay from the taxes he collected.
• His role grew to include governmental
  religious aspects, usurping the role of local
  princes. Eventually, the position was considered
  hereditary.
• Daendels Raffles sought to reduce his powers to
  protect the natives. Raffles land rent system
  virtually eliminated him.
• The Java War demonstrated the need for his
  support.

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First Transformation of SoutheastAsian
Landscape

• European attempt to monopolise trade in cloves,
• nutmeg, and cloves (trinity of spices)
• bring change in collection and production
• Under Portuguese (16th century), spices no
• longer just picked branch and all, but picked,
  dried, bagged
• Under Dutch (mid 17th and 18th centuries),
  forests of clove and nutmeg trees extirpated ,
• allowing trees only in designated islands
• Ambon for cloves Banda Islands for nutmeg
• Clearing of forests by both local rulers and
• Europeans for new plantation crops

NUTMEG
Extirpate removed something completely
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Java War (1825-1830)

• Also called the Dipo Negoro Revolt.
• Led to the death of 200,000 8,000 were Dutch.
• Dipo Negoro was a prince, but as the son of a
  lesser wife not eligible to inherit the Sultanate
  of Yogyakarta. Rejected by Raffles as his
  fathers successor, he became an Islamic mystic.
  When tombs were disturbed by road construction,
  he led a revolt as a messianic ratu adil.
• Controlled middle Java and Yogyakarta until
  defeated in 1825. Then led a guerrilla war until
  1827. Captured in 1830. The war cost the Dutch 30
  million guilders.

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Banda Islands
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The Culture System

• The system was implemented from 1830 to 1877 to
  raise funds to cover the cost of the Java War,
  Napoleonic Wars the Belgium Civil war.
• It was the brain child of Baron Johannes Van Den
  Bosch, Gov-Gen of Java..
• Required villages to grow export crops to raise
  sufficient funds to cover their land taxes.
• These would be sold to the government at a fixed
  price for transportation to Amsterdam. The
  system provided 19-32 of the states revenue.

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Max Havelaar

• Max Havelaar or The Coffee Auctions of the Dutch
  Trading Company written by Eduard Douwes Dekker
  published in 1860.
• Portrayed the Culture System as organised forced
  labor. Increased prices led to increased taxes
  taxes were collected on commission.
• By 1840, rice shortages, famines , epidemics and
  dislocation all began to appear. Saijah Adinda.
• Reforms led to the system being dismantled
  government monopolies abolished starting in 1860.
  Coffee remained a monopoly until 1917.

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Other Reforms

• Baron Van Hoevell, a former preacher in Java, led
  a reform movement in the Dutch States General
• 1848 The legislature would have a say in
  colonial government.
• 1854 Passed a colonial constitution for
  abolition of culture system.
• 1870 - Passed the Agrarian Act allowing the
  leasing of land and development of free trade.

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The Ethical Policy 1901

• A policy of ethical obligation and moral
  responsibility to the people of the East Indies.
  
• education, irrigation and emigration.
• Included Western education for elites,
  agricultural extension to open new areas and
  improve crops, resettlement from Java to Sumatra,
  improved infrastructure, encouragement of
  economic development and Christian missionaries.

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Plantation Crops in Early Modern Period

• Clearing of forests by both local rulers
• Europeans to plant pepper to meet demand,
  especially
• from India and China
• Black pepper (piper nigrum) introduced to
• Southeast Asia from southern India about
• beginning of Common Era grown alongside
• Sumatran varieties
• high maintenance crop
• Other crops introduced by Dutch in Java were
• sugar, coffee, indigo, tobacco for
  international trade

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THE CLOVE TREE
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NUT AND MACE OF NUTMEG
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Sugar cane field
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• INDIGO

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TOBACCO
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BLACK PEPPER
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COFFEE
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Introduction of High Colonialism
in1870s Creating the infrastructure for Economic
Exploitation
Communications system telegraph, roads,
bridges, railways, ports, warehouses roads from
mines and plantations to rivers to ports, later
railways to port Legal and Administrative
system new land tenure alienating land for mines
or plantations Scientific and technical
research institutes Financial system currency
linked to currency of the metropole for
stability banking and insurance to aid capital
flow Organisation of manpower Stable
government Invested in extraction of raw
materials and cultivation of tropical export
crops in great demand in temperate areas
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Second Transformation of the Southeast Asian
Landscape
Major swaths of forested lands even wet-rice
lands transformed to make way for expansion of
area under plantation crops in all colonial areas
of Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), British
Malaya, Spanish Philippines, British Burma,
French Indo-China, Brazilian rubber tree
successfully introduced to Indonesia making
rubber a major revenue earner in early 20th
century because of the automobile ( later the
airplane) Industry Forests also felled for
timber trade
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RUBBER TREE Latex
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Plantation Crops prior to WW II

• Coffee begun in 17th century in Java, but
  variety
• changed from Arabica up to 1880s, to Liberica and
• Robusta from Africa today
• Sugar cane also developed new varieties in 19th
  century
• Other 19th century crops were tea, originally
  from China
• quinine from the bark of cinchona tree
  (originally from Andes) developed in Java in
  early 20th century
• Mainland Southeast Asias main export was rice
• Copra and palm oil for vegetable oils, for
  flux

metallurgy a substance that promotes the fusion
of two substances or surfaces. Use soldering,
welding.
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COPRA Inter-island copra trade since 17th
century, but large-scale not until early 20th
century with increase in world demand for fats
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Responses to Colonial Regimes

• Collaboration/cooperation
• Westernised elite group, obtained European
• education, occupied lower administrative
  positions in
• colonial bureaucracy
• formed Reformist groups, work with Europeans
• Aim Gain autonomy within a larger union under
• colonial power
• Anti-Western/non-cooperation and resistance
• Westernised elite group, obtained European
• education but refused to work with colonials
• Indigenous millennarian movements
• Early 20th century, rise of communism
• Aim Overthrow of colonial regime

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Reformism Those with education tended to be in
the middle upper income classes, hence the
desire to be treated as equals of the colonials
met glass ceilings In reformism, the elite
classes see selves in the same light as the
colonials feel little need to consider those
below them class structure still in place Only
with failure to gain access to positions believed
to be rightfully theirs through their education
class, do the elites then turn to seeking
alliance with those under them
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Rise of Nationalism-1
Colonial education ? Learning history ?
Treatment by European children in schools ?
Meeting of local students from other ethnic
groups Discrimination in employment Lack of
political representation Victory of Japan over
Russia (1905) made Japan hero magnet for
Southeast Asian nationalist leaders
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Rise of Nationalism-2
Communism ? Rise of communist movement ?
Lenins Theses on the Nationalist and Colonial
questions in 1920 calling for cooperation of
bourgeois nationalists Communists Religion
and Identity ? Theravada Buddhist monkhood
(sangha) in Burma, Cambodia, and Laos created
sites of resistance to colonials ? Islam
religious teachers (ulama) in Indonesia
Malaysia, helped galvanise support against the
Christian colonial powers
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From Reform to Independence
Movements - 1
INDONESIAs path from reformism to
nationalism ? Elite emphasis on our nation,
hence creating the imagined community
subordinating all ethnic class divisions under
banner of nationalism ? National revolution
succeeded, old elite retained power benefited
in move from reformism to nationalism at expense
of social revolution
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Pesantren (lit. place for santris) or Pondok
Pesantren. special relig. boarding schools in S,
J Kalimantan

• Usually founded by a kiai
• Kiai is teacher and spiritual guide
• Students (santris) board (Pondok hostel)
• Studies include Quran, Hadith, fiqh deepen
  knowledge of Islam, learn Arabic, traditions of
  exegesis (analysis of texts- interpretations of
  relig. texts), sayings of the Prophet, law
  logic.
• Core values emphasised sincerity, individual
  autonomy, solidarity, self-discipline.
• spiritual and moral training nowadays government
  school curriculum is also included.
• Close relation between kiai and santris , young
  men bonded with teacher contributing to a sense
  of ind. commit. to faith

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Pesantren (lit. place for santris) or Pondok
Pesantren. special relig. boarding schools in S,
J Kalimantan (continued)

• Financially supported by students and local
  community
• Usually cheaper than other schools
• Santris may work for pesantren
• Usually in rural areas
• Continuation of pre-Islamic tradition of schools
  (ashrams?)
• In Indonesia Faithdemands of Islam daily life
  struggle
• No clear line between orthodoxy heresy in Indo.
  context
• Religion adapted to local conditions, brought
  peacefully by traders from India in 12th C,
  mystics as well

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Priyayi

• Javanese nobility
• value the pre-Islamic heritage
• most are abangan religiously
• may follow forms of kebatinen
• some are practising Muslims
• quickest to become Westernised

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Reform and Political Movements early 20th
century

• Budi Utomo 1908, secular, Javanese
• Muhammadiya 1912, Santri, modernist,
  educational, dakwa
• Sarekat Islam 1912, Santri, modernist,
  nationalist, socialist orientation, political
• Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) 1920, secular
• Persatuan Islam (Persis) 1923, Islamist,
  educational, dakwa, political in 1940s-50s
• Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) 1926, Santri, pesantren
  based, political 1941-84
• Indonesian National Party (PNI) 1927, secular,
  led by Sukarno

Santri fully practising Muslims Dakwa Pesantren
religious school
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Nationalist Movements

• Many consider the Java War (1825-1830) as a first
  expression of nationalism.
• Education of the priyayi (Javanese nobility) and
  santri under the Ethical Policy produced a new
  elite and a sense of national identity.
• Organisations which promoted nationalism
• 1902 - Kartini Schools - 1908 - Boedi Utomo
• 1912 Sareket Islam - 1920 PKI (Communist
  Party)
• 1927 PNI (Ind. National Party)

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Were Southeast Asian Resources a Major Reason for
Japans Invasion? Most of Southeast Asian
resources sold to US or to metropolitan powers
Malaya was known as the British Empires
dollar arsenal, while Indonesia came to be known
as the cork by which Holland floated and the
tail which wagged the Dutch dog.
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Were Southeast Asian Resources a Major Reason for
Japans Invasion? (continued)
Oil in Indonesia was particularly valuable in
1938 Indonesia produced 7,398,000 metric tons of
oil exported 5,999,000 metric tons of petroleum
products (petroleum, aviation spirits, kerosene,
diesel lubricating oils, paraffin, asphalt)
With such a high percentage of vital resources
available in Southeast Asia most going to the
West, Japans primary aim in invading Southeast
Asia may have been primarily to deny these
resources to the West, while using them for its
imperial expansion.
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Situation Prior to Japanese Invasion in December
1941
In 1930s nationalist movements largely
suppressed by colonial regimes for fear of
communist or fascist influences secret police
active in suppression Even reformists lost
hope since no concessions being given because of
looming war threat in Europe and Asia
Nationalist leaders were either incarcerated or
in exile, with little progress toward nationalist
demands for independence or even reforms When
Japan invaded and portrayed itself as
liberator of Southeast Asians against colonial
regimes, this was widely hailed in the region
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World War II

• The Dutch promise a conference on self-government
  before they leave in 1941.
• Sukarno, Mohammed Hatta Sutan Sjahrir released
  from jail by the Japanese when they occupied
  Indonesia in 1942.
• Sukarno, Hatta others formed Putera as a double
  edge puppet government.

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Indonesian Revolution

• Sukarno announced the Five Postulates declared
  independence in 1945.The Dutch had not yet
  returned.
• Nationalism (National unity)
• Internationalism (One sovereign nation among
  equals)
• Representative Democracy (All significant groups
  represented)
• Social Justice ( A Marxist view)
• Belief in God (A secular state, not Islamic)

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Struggle for Independence

• The Netherlands asked Britain to reoccupy
  Indonesia on its behalf.
• The initial British force attempted to occupy
  Surabaya on November 10, 1945. The result was a
  bloody one-month long battle.
• Negotiations with Dutch led to Linggadjati
  Agreement in 1947 creating the United States of
  Indonesia under Dutch sovereignty. The USI was to
  be part of a larger Netherlands-Indonesian-Surinam
  -Curacao Union.

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Sovereignty At Last

• The Indonesians were not satisfied with the lack
  of sovereignty. A guerrilla war ensued during
  which 6,000 Dutch 150,000 Indonesians were
  killed during 1947-49.
• A cease fire was imposed by the U.N. in 1947.
• An Asian Conference hosted by India imposed
  sanctions against the Dutch in 1949.
• Sovereignty was finally transferred by the Dutch
  in December, 1949.

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Coping with Independence

• Indonesia found it extremely difficult to create
  and operate a viable government..
• Elections only yielded pluralities weak,
  short-lived coalition governments.
• The economy was in decline and inflation rampant.
  The country was bankrupt.
• Fear of nationalisation of assets prevented
  significant foreign investment.

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Guided Democracy

• In 1957 Sukarno established guided democracy to
  save the country.
• A national advisory council was established
  composed of representative groups, e.g.,
  peasants, workers, the military.
• A cooperating parliament was established in
  place of the elected parliament. Opinion could
  be expressed but votes were not taken. The goal
  was to govern by deliberation and consensus.

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Foreign Policy

• Sukarno sought a leading role for Indonesia as a
  non-aligned nation.
• 1954 Meeting of the Colombo Powers at Bogor.
  Obtained support for claims to West Irian.
• 1954 Hosted the 29 nation Asian-African
  conference at Bandung of newly freed peoples.
• 1962 Indonesia sought to invade West Irian
  (Dutch New Guinea) after negotiating with the
  Dutch since 1949. West Irian was transferred to
  Indonesia in 1963 with help of the U.N. and U.S.
  diplomat Ellsworth Bunker.

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Foreign Policy Contd

• 1963 - 65 - Crush Malaysia Campaign launched by
  Sukarno over the formation of the Federation of
  Malaysia. Felt that the linking of Sarawak,
  Brunei and Sabah to Malaya would threaten
  Kalimantan.
• The Crush Malaysia Campaign was part of
  Konfrontasia, the confronting of the remnants of
  colonialism. It involved NEFOS vs. the OLDEFOS
• Received 2 Billion in aid from the USSR in
  1965. Nevertheless, Sukarno was drawn thru the
  influence of PKI to align with China.

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The Gestapu Affair

• On the night of September 30, 1965, six leading
  generals and one lieutenant were assassinated in
  an attempted coup.
• General Nasution escaped the assassination and
  Major General Suharto was not targeted.
• The reaction was a massacre of a half million
  Communist and Chinese, a combination pogrom and
  Jihad.
• Sukarno had no advance knowledge of the coup but
  his powers were curbed. He was removed as
  president in 1967 and died in 1970.

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Suhartos New Order

• March 11, 1966 Sukarno signed the Supersemar
  decree authorising Suharto to take all measures
  necessary . This was the beginning of the New
  Order.
• Revived the parliament of 1955.
• Adam Malik renegotiated debt of 1.7 million.
• Ended Confrontation Policy.
• Joined ASEAN
• Befriended the West Japan.
• Held national elections in 1971.

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New Order Problems

• Sekber Golkar (the government party) lost
  creditability in the early 70s.
• Legitimised Dual Function.
• Graft, cronyism and corruption were extremely
  wide spread.
• Examples
• Astra Toyota Tommy
• Pertamina lost 10.5 billion.

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The Downfall of Suharto

• The 1997-98 crises led to Indonesian currency
  losing 70 of its value. The IMF bailout required
  strict austerity measures leading to further
  economic hardship inflation.
• Sukarno ran unopposed for president for the
  seventh time. Sparked by the killing of six
  student demonstrators, Jakarta was seized by
  demonstrations and riots.
• The army took over Jakarta and Sukarno resigned
  after 32 years as president and 15 billion in
  graft.

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B. J. Habbie

• As V.P., Habbie assumed the presidency. Many were
  highly skeptical.
• Trained as an engineer in Germany. Founded an
  aircraft company in Bandung. Championed
  industrial vs. agricultural development.
• Allowed East Timor referendum leading to that
  countrys independence.

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Abdurrahman Wahid

• Elected in 1999. Was a nearly blind Muslim
  cleric. Had suffered recurring strokes. Proved to
  be indecisive incapable of running the country.
• Did not effectively cope with the separatist
  demands of Aceh Irian Jaya.
• Was impeached in 2001.

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Separatist Movements

• There have been three major separatist movements
  Aceh, Iran Jaya (West Papua) and East Timor.

Jose Ramos Horta, Timors 1st PM.
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East Timor

• East Timor declared its independence in 1975
  after a change in the government of Portugal.
  Indonesia invaded four days later.
• Timor had been a Portuguese colony since 1702, as
  such its population is 90 Catholic. The
  Netherlands annexed West Timor in 1859. It is
  largely Islamic.
• Indonesia invaded East Timor because it feared
  FRETILIN (the independence party) was in league
  with China would turn the country Communist.
• FRETILIN fought a successful guerrilla war from
  1975 to 1999. Total deaths from all causes
  200,000 /-.
• East Timor became fully independent in 2002.

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Aceh

• Was independent prior to colonial rule, even
  controlling part of the Malay Peninsula (Kedah).
• Indonesia granted Aceh special autonomy status in
  1959. The Aceh freedom movement began in 1976 led
  by GAM. Warfare led to 5,000 deaths by 2000.
• In 1999, President Wahid assured GAM that all of
  its demands short of total independence would be
  met. Granted 75 of all oil and gas revenue plus
  Sharia law and own flag in 2001. GAM continued to
  demand total independence until 2005 peace.

82
Western New Guinea

• The Dutch sought to retain in a commonwealth.
• In 1961, Indonesia mounted an invasion after West
  Papua declared independence.
• In 1962, agreement was reached to transfer the
  territory to Indonesia. An Act of Free Choice
  was required. The poll was taken in 1969.
• President Wahid granted special autonomy in 2000.
  In 2001, it was split into two provinces. The
  freedom movement wanted a share of the income
  from the rich gas, oil, copper gold resources.

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Megawati Sukarnoputri

• Indonesias first woman president. Succeeded
  Wahid in 2001 as his V.P.
• Formed her own political party to win election
  when banned from the PDI. She formed PDI-P.
• Considered herself the good Queen. Was called
  Mother Mega.
• Presided over a 3-year transition to civilian
  rule.

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Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono

• Elected president in 2004 in Indonesias first
  direct presidential election. Called SBY.
• Top graduate of Indonesian military academy, U.S.
  Infantry Advanced Course and Command and the
  General Staff College.
• Labeled the thinking general. Took leading role
  against terrorism.

Retired as a 4 star in 2000.