Kinds of Research Design

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Kinds of Research Design

• Non Experimental (Correlational) Designs
• No manipulation of Independent Variable
• High on realism, low on control
• For example Surveys, Observational Studies
• For example
• Do women use the internet for managing social
  relationships more than men?
• Do people like to shop online for books more than
  for clothes?

2

• Quasi-Experimental (Correlational) Designs
• Manipulation of Independent Variable, often in
  field settings
• High on realism, low on control
• For example Field Studies
• For example
• Do peoples shopping habits differ offline and
  online?
• Can children learn to use the web without any
  formal instruction?

3

• Pure Experimental Designs
• Manipulation of Independent Variable, often in
  lab settings
• Often the only way to establish causal
  relationships
• Low on realism, high on control
• For example Lab Studies
• For example
• Do peoples shopping habits differ offline and
  online?
• Can children learn to use the web without any
  formal instruction?

4
Research Problems are inherently suited to one
method or the other

• Often you will not have the luxury to choose
  method of study
• Choice of method depends on many factors
• Does data pertaining to problem already exist?
• Is it ethical to do lab / field experiment
  (example of research on link between lead and
  childrens cognitive ability)
• Do you need to need to make causal link, or is
  finding correlational link acceptable
• Resources (depends on many factors)
• Your training (experiments difficult to setup,
  easier to analyze, surveys easy to setup, can be
  difficult to analyze)

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Survey as a Non-Experimental Research Design
Focus on web-based surveys Example Survey Daily
Internet Tracking Survey
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Content Based Strategy

• Identify everything related to the concept that
  you are testing. Content can be based on expert
  opinion, user observation, a theory etc.
• gtgtFor example You can reason that a good
  interface should easy to remember and pleasing to
  the eye.easy to remember etc.
• Advantage economical method
• Disadvantage the content that you derive the
  questions from might not be correct

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Statistics Based Strategy
Let the data speak for itself. Identify items
related to the concept. Administer this scale to
the relevant sample. Use statistical procedures
( e.g., item analysis or factor analysis) to
identify items related to the concept you are
interested in. gtgtFor example For a usability
scale identify a large number of usability items,
and administer them to the sample of users.
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External criterion based strategy
Items are selected on the basis of their ability
to differentiate between two groups of people.
Method Develop scale. Validate it against a
criterion population. gtgt For example For a
scale of usability, independently identify a few
good and bad web-sites. Select the items which
can distinguish the good and bad sites.
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Which method works best?
Combination Generate items for a scale of
usability from previous scales and articles in
the field (content based) Select and retain
scale items by item analysis (statistical
methods) Evaluate scale by testing its ability
to discriminate web sites by comparing with
criterion, i.e., experts evaluation of good and
bad sites (criterion based method)
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Kinds of scales

• Unipolar a single phrase or term referring to
  some behavior is used.
• e.g., degree of dominance low dominance, high
  dominance.
• Bipolar Unipolar scale can be changed to a
  bipolar one by use of two adjectives.
• e.g., Submissive and dominant the middle
  category reflects equal amounts of dominance and
  submissiveness.

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Numerical scales

• Ratings are made on a series of ordered
  categories, with different values being assigned
  to different categories. Numbers or adjectives
  can be used for the values.
• This web-sites navigation structure is
• Excellent Good Fair Poor Bad
• 1 2 3 4
  5

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Semantic differential scales

• concepts are rated on several seven-point bipolar
  adjective scales.
• For example Rate your mother
• Bad __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Good
• Weak __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Strong

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Graphic Rating Scales
The two end points and the in between points are
described by graphic descriptions which denote
magnitude of the variable being measured.

• For example This software works properly
• All the Almost all Most of Sometimes Never
• time the time the times

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Standards Scale
Items are compared with other similar items
(standards) on some dimension. Standards can also
be brief behavioral descriptions instead of
actual items.

• For example In terms of its menu options, BBEdit
  is most similar to
• Notepad WordPad WordPerfect MS Word

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Behaviorally Anchored Scales (BARS)
(BARS) attempt to make the terminology of rating
scales more descriptive of actual behavior and
therefore more objective.

• For example When I am using Microsoft Word
• and the Office Assistant pops up, I am
• glad to be for helped
• annoyed
• exit word and start using emacs

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Forced Choice Scales
Rater is provided with two descriptive
statements/options that are matched in social
desirability.

• For example What is your previous experience
  with video-communication services?
• I have had no previous experience
• I use it very often

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Rating Errors

• Constant Error or range restrictions occur when
  ratings tend to be clustered in one part of the
  scale
• leniency error in the higher part of the scale
• severity error in the lower part of the scale
• central tendency error in the middle range
• Such tendencies do not always constitute errors.
  There can be cultural differences.
• To check for it Compare each raters rating with
  mean (without the rater) for each item.
• To take care of it (statistically) standardize
  scores

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Halo Effect
The tendency to respond to a general impression
of ratee and or to overgeneralize favorable /
unfavorable ratings based on impression of a few
dimensions. For example You are asked to rate a
software you dont know much about. Once you used
it for a few minutes and it crashed. Now all your
ratings will be based on that impression. Solutio
n Add a dont know, undecided option
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Contrast Error
The tendency to change rating because of the
effect of some anchor point (a) assigning a
higher rating than justified if item before
received very low rating or vice versa. This is
more problematic since it is a systematic
error. Solution Can deal with it by randomizing
order. (b) tendency to use self as an anchor in
assigning rating. If this is a constant effect,
the it might not matter.
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Proximity Error
The actual location of item on page might effect
rating. For example raters often assign similar
ratings to a person on items that are closer
together on a printed page. Solution randomize
order Most recent performance Ratee is judged
not on impression but their most recent
impression.
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Ambiguity Error
If questions are ambiguous! This will effect all
items. Solution Pilot and ask respondents how
they interpreted questions.
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Anchors in questionnaires
Anchors are the verbal comments above the numbers
('strongly agree', etc.). Factual questions
having anchors above all the response options
will give more accurate results. Opinion or
attitude work it is good to indicate the central
(neutral) point but anchors might not be as
crucial.
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Anchors in questionnaires
Should no or dont know option be included
Factual questions not so important, unless
issues of privacy are involved. Opinion
questionnaire if many respondents complain about
items 'not being applicable' to the situation,
you should consider carefully whether these items
should be changed or re-worded.
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Advantages of using questionnaires in usability
research

• Feedback from the point of view of the user.
• Flexible comparisons Measures gained from a
  questionnaire are largely independent of the
  specific system, users, or tasks. Therefore you
  could compare
• same system with other functionally equivalent
  systems,
• same system at other times,
• ease of use of System A with ease of use of
  other systems,
• site redesign,
• competitors sites.
• Quick and therefore cost effective to administer
  and to score and that you can gather a lot of
  data.
• Questionnaires can also be used to measure
  subjective responses in an experimental context.

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Disadvantages of questionnaires in usability
research

• is a subjective measure, answers questions about
  perception of event/object rather than event
  itself.
• Gives you broad data, rather than specific
  advice. Cannot tell you what is going right or
  wrong, can get you near the issues.
• Does not work for getting feedback on new ideas,
  only works on concrete objects/events.

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Disadvantages of questionnaires in usability
research (continued)

• Often does not correlate with behavior since it
  is an indirect method.
• Questions are fixed little possibility to
  include new questions on request from the
  respondent, hard to give clarification to the
  user if he/she needs any
• Sampling issues are especially crucial

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Practical aspects about surveys in usability

• Survey Length Keep it short. Keep to a single
  screen.
• Use Adaptive Surveys to keep it short
• gtgtAlternate questions from one to other user.
  gtgtPose different subsequent questions to
  different users based on previous response.
• Pilot Test Ask two to three people from your
  sample.
• Questionsshort, easy to understand, not
  ambiguous, or inappropriate, or intrusive

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Response Rate is very important

• Getting a high response rate is crucial for the
  validity of the survey. If only a few,
  unrepresentative users answer, then you might as
  well toss a coin.
• Incentives will improve the response rate, but
  you can't buy responses. If you offer too much,
  you will attract respondents who are not typical
  users but visit your site because of the rumored
  big prize.

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Do attitudes correlate with behavior?
Degree of Control A person might have positive
or negative attitude towards Object A, but not
have any control over the action. Ask about
control of behavior
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When do attitudes predict behavior
Directly formed attitudes predict behavior more
than indirectly formed attitudes For example
If a person who has direct experience of customer
service at Etrade tells you the service sucks,
it is more likely to correlate with behavior than
an indirectly formed attitude. Attitudes and
norms in the immediate social context Attitudes
are also affected by the social norms around the
person. For example I might have a neutral
attitude towards Microsoft, but if I hang out
with a bunch of people who hate Microsoft, I am
likely to be affected.
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When do attitudes predict behavior
Attitudes and ValuesAttitudes affect behavior
more if they are in accordance with persons
value system. For ExampleI might think
Amazon.com is a pretty good site. But maybe I
have strong values about the promotion of small
independent bookstores and try to promote their
use. In that case, my opinion of Amazon.com's
usability will not affect my behavior towards it.