Great Barrier Reef

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Great Barrier Reef

• HSC Geography
• Case Study

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Introduction

• Few people know the fascinating reality the
  tremendously complex maze of reefs and islands
  which make up the GBR
• High, tree covered continental islands
• Low coral cays afloat on the water
• Submerged reefs and tiny sandspits.
• GBR is one of the richest and most diverse
  ecosystems on this planet.

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Overview

• Spatial patterns and dimensions
• Biophysical interactions
• Nature and rate of factors affecting ecosystem
  functioning
• Management strategies and
• Evaluation of contemporary and traditional
  management strategies

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Spatial Patterns and Dimensions

• North East Australian coast from South of Tropic
  of Capricorn to the Torres Straight and Papua.
• No clear Northern end to system
• Covers an area of 350 000 km2
• Long, narrow system which stretches 2 000 km
  along coast ranging from 50 km wide in the north
  to 200 km wide in the south.
• Largest system of corals in world lt 3000 reefs
• 3 main sections/regions according to latitude
• Southern section
• Central section
• Northern section

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The Southern Section

• Extends from Swains group where the continental
  shelf is wide (150 nautical miles) to latitude of
  approximately 21º30 S where continental shelf is
  70 nautical miles wide
• Tidal ranges are high in this area and there is a
  broad coastal lagoon 50-60 metres deep. This
  gradually narrows from 70 nautical miles in the
  south to 30 nautical miles in the north.
• The coastal lagoon separates the offshore areas
  with consistently high salinity, low nutrient,
  clear, oceanic waters with extensive reef growth
  in shallow sites from the inshore areas. The
  closest major reef growth occurs between 10 and
  50 nautical miles from the coast. The inshore
  waters have variable salinity depending on levels
  of rainfall and coastal runoff.

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The Southern Section

• The inshore waters are frequently turbid with
  sediments brought by the river systems and
  resuspended by wave action generated by the
  southeast trade winds.
• The inshore waters consequently support
  relatively limited reef growth, mainly in the
  form of fringing reef on islands or rocks of
  continental origin.
• To the North of the Swains group the outer reef
  of the Southern section form a tightly packed
  mass of large reef separated by narrow channels
  that break the force of the Pacific Ocean waves.

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The Central Section

• The Central Section extends northward from
  21º30S to approximately 14º30S. The continental
  shelf and the inshore lagoon become gradually
  narrower.
• By 15º the lagoon is less than 10 nautical miles
  wide and the continental shelf less than 30
  nautical miles.
• The depth in the lagoon and between reef masses
  gradually decreases to the north to about 35
  metres at 15ºS.
• Three major river systems drain into the lagoon
  between 17º and 21º. Up to about 17ºS the reefs
  are relatively sparsely scattered and there is no
  distinct outer line of reef abutting the Pacific.
  
• From 17º northward the ribbon reef system stands
  on the edge of the steep continental shelf
  dropoff forming an almost continuous rampart of
  coral broken only by narrow channels.

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The Northern Section

• The Northern section of the GBR runs from about
  14º30S to the Torres Strait at approximately
  10ºS.
• No inshore lagoon and the depth is for the most
  part about 30 metres.
• The continental shelf becomes broader again and
  no major river systems drain into the region
  until in the extreme north, where the influence
  of the Fly River of Papua becomes a minor factor

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Biophysical Interactions
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Weather and Climate

• The Great Barrier Reef area has a tropical
  climate influenced primarily by two features of
  the Southern Hemisphere atmospheric circulation.
  The equatorial low pressure zone during the
  summer months, and the subtropical high pressure
  zone during the winter months.
• As the area lies between the continental mass of
  Australia and the open ocean of the South
  Pacific, its climate is also strongly influenced
  by both the adjacent landmass and oceanic
  effects.
• Wind patterns are dominated for the greater part
  of the year by the southeast trades.
• During the months of January to March north
  westerlies prevail in the north of the area under
  the influence of the inter tropical monsoonal
  front.

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Weather and Climate

• The rainfall pattern is marked by great
  variability from year to year and by geographical
  distribution.
• Rainfall occurs predominantly in the summer
  months throughout the area, under the influence
  of the monsoon and the regular occurrence of
  tropical cyclones and depressions.
• Southern parts of the area occasionally receive
  good falls in winter associated with winter
  depressions.
• Air temperatures vary between an average maximum
  of about 30ºC in January and 23ºC in July and an
  average minimum of about 24ºC in January and 18ºC
  in July.

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Geomorphic Processes

• Geomorphic processes in the GBR include the
  history of the reef and the different types of
  coral reefs.
• A combination of geological events affecting the
  northeastern coast of Australia, that began some
  53 million years ago, determined the development
  of the Great Barrier Reef. The first of these was
  when Australia and New Zealand separated from the
  super continent, Gondwana, and slowly drifted
  northwards.

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Geomorphic Processes

• About 30 million years ago the earth began to
  experience the effects of world wide temperature
  fluctuations associated with the great ice ages
  of the late Tertiary.
• 17 million years ago the northern tip of
  Australia passed into the warm waters of the
  Tropics and for the first time the potential for
  coral reef growth existed.
• Once these coral reefs were established, the
  coral reefs flourished. As temperatures changed
  in the area, sea levels rose and dropped below
  the level of the coral. When the sea levels fell,
  and corals were exposed to the air, their hard
  calcareous skeletons, cemented into large,
  resistant limestone pinnacles, and were left
  standing on the broad flat continental shelf.

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Geomorphic Processes

• When the sea levels rose again, new coral began
  to grow on the old coral, and as a result of this
  higher coral, today we have reefs of coral up to
  150 metres thick. Now, only one fifth of their
  depth is above the sea floor, the remainder being
  buried in sand and mud.
• There are three distinct types of coral reefs in
  the Great Barrier Reef. The Fringing Reefs are
  coral formations linked to the mainland or to
  continental islands. There are approximately 760
  fringing reef in the GBR. Those surrounding
  continental islands are usually the most
  spectacular. The conditions for coral growth are
  better. The greatest variety of corals and other
  reef organisms are found on these fringing reefs

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Geomorphic Processes

• Another main type of coral reef is the main reef
  or barrier reef. There are approximately 2 200 of
  these reefs in the GBR.
• These Barrier Reefs or main reefs occupy a band
  on the outer edge of the continental shelf. They
  are considered as either mid-shelf reefs on the
  inside of the band and adjacent to the GBR lagoon
  or outer-shelf reefs adjacent to the Coral Sea.
• The main reef does not form a continuous barrier
  but consists of individual reefs separated by
  interreefal waters. In some areas considerable
  passages exist, breaking the maze of reefs and
  joining the lagoon to the Coral Sea.

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Geomorphic processes

• The third main type of coral reef are coral cays.
  Coral cays are low-islands formed when eroded
  reef material is swept into a particular part of
  the reef by wave action.
• In the early stages of development, the coral cay
  is little more than a sandbank, changing it
  position and shape as weather conditions change.
• As it grows in size, however, the cays position
  on the reef becomes more stable and there are
  fewer changes to its shape.

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Hydrologic Processes

• The river discharges for the coastal regions
  adjoining the GBR is divided into a diverse range
  of wet and dry tropical catchments. Most are
  small (less than 10000 km2), but two, the
  Burdekin (133000 km2) and Fitzroy (143000 km2)
  rivers are among the largest along Australia's
  eastern coast.
• Flows of water in all catchments bordering the
  GBR are highly variable, both between and within
  years. Discharge is dominated by large flood
  events associated with tropical cyclones and
  monsoonal rainfall.
• An average of 60 km3 of water is discharged
  yearly from the Great Barrier Reef catchment.

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Geomorphic processes

• Area-specific erosion is higher in the 'wet'
  catchments of the central Great Barrier Reef
  (16-18 south), but overall sediment and nutrient
  inputs are dominated by the large dry catchments
  as a consequence of larger average areas and
  water flows.
• The principal sources of sediment and nutrients
  from the coastal catchments have been quantified.
  It is estimated that 23 000 000 tonnes of
  sediment, 77000 tonnes of nitrogen and 11 000
  tonnes of phosphorus are exported to the inshore
  coastal waters of the Great Barrier Reef.

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Hydrological Processes

• Rivers entering the Great Barrier Reef also carry
  their highest concentrations of dissolved and
  suspended materials during monsoon flood flow. As
  this is also the period of peak discharge, almost
  the complete load of materials entering Great
  Barrier Reef waters occurs during these short
  periods.
• Concentrations of suspended sediments reach
  7000mg/L in the Burdekin River and 1500 mg/L in
  the wet tropics rivers in peak discharge compared
  to values of 10 mg/L in non-flood conditions.
• Nutrient species also reach concentrations from
  two to ten times their non-flood values at such
  times. Concentrations at these times far exceed
  Australian and New Zealand Environment and
  Conservation Council guidelines for ecosystem
  health for some parameters while non-flood values
  are normally well within the guidelines.

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Hydrological processes

• A number of parameters (salinity, nitrite,
  particulate nitrogen, dissolved organic
  phosphorus and chlorophyll) show seasonal
  differences in concentrations.
• Most of the observed seasonal and cross-shelf
  variability in nutrient and suspended matter
  consent rations is likely due to short-lived
  event processes (upwelling, winds, and
  resuspension) which largely affect local or
  regional nutrient distributions.

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Biogeographical Processes

• The flora and vegetation of the continental
  islands and coral cays of the Great Barrier Reef
  World Heritage Area are exceptionally diverse
  given the small area of land involved.
• There is a total of 2211 plant species on the
  more than 550 continental islands. This is about
  a quarter of the total number of species for
  Queensland in only 0.1 of the area of the State.
  
• This island plant community is dominated by
  rainforest species (48 of species present)
  together with open-forest species (46) and
  coastline species (6). 62 of the species are
  currently listed as rare or endangered and two
  species are found only in the GBR.

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Biogeographical Processes

• Introduced plant species are present on the
  continental islands of the World Heritage Area,
  but in lower numbers of species than usually
  found on developed islands in other regions.
• In different areas of the Great Barrier Reef the
  percentage of introduced species on islands
  varies from 4.7 to 14.4. For comparison, 47 of
  the plant species on Hawaii are introduced.

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Biogeographical Processes

• Plant communities on the more than 230 coral cays
  have fewer species with 350-400 species in the
  northern region and about 140 in the south. The
  northern region is home to many rainforest
  species and relatively few (only 15) introduced
  ones, whereas the southern region has a
  relatively large number (55) of introduced
  species.
• Coral cay vegetation, particularly the Pisonia
  rainforest, provides important nesting sites for
  seabirds. Seventy per cent of the entire
  Australian coral cay Pisonia rainforest occurs on
  the cays of the Capricorn-Bunker group.

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Biogeographical Processes

• The important members of the Reef fauna include
  molluscs, gastropods, echinoderms, crustaceans,
  worms and ascidians.
• Many of these species are essential to the
  kinetic processes of the Reef, in that they
  penetrate and break up coral and algae
  structures, contributing large quantities of
  detritus to the Reef mass.

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Biogeographical Processes

• There are approximately 1500 species of fishes in
  the GBR area, exhibiting a variety of size,
  shape, colour and behavior. There are 6 species
  of turtles and they are all protected species.
  Whales, dolphins and dugong also occur in the
  area, although the total number of species of
  marine mammals is unknown.
• The cays and continental islands of the area
  support 242 species of birds. These include 40
  species of sea birds, of which 21 have breeding
  colonies within the area. Of the 202 species of
  land birds recorded, 109 have breeding sites
  recorded.
• The most well known fauna of the GBR is the Crown
  of Thorns Starfish, which has caused so much
  controversy in the past few years as we will see
  later.

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Adjustments in Response to Natural Stress

• Colonisation by introduced species is a pressure
  on the plant communities of islands. Disturbance
  of natural plant communities by grazing and human
  activities often promotes and accelerates
  colonisation by introduced species. These species
  may have the ability to out-compete native
  species, thus changing the community structure on
  islands in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage
  Area.
• Much of the ecosystem does not recover after
  natural stress, but much of it does. For example,
  after floods and great rainfall, nutrient and
  chemical levels usually go back to normal after a
  few weeks, and the ecosystem goes back to
  functioning normally.

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The Nature and Rate of Factors Affecting
Ecosystem Functioning

• There are many factors, which affect ecosystem
  functioning. This part of the presentation will
  be presenting the nature and rate of these
  factors, which affect ecosystem functioning.

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Eutrophication

• The general condition of nutrient enrichment and
  the subsequent problems is known as
  eutrophication or more simply it is the increase
  in the nutrient status of a water body, and
  consequently the rapid growth of plants, both
  natural and as a result of human activity. Excess
  nutrients have a number of effects on coral
  reefs.
• Nitrogen or phosphorus can encourage the growth
  of phytoplankton leading to decreased water
  clarity and reduced light for coral growth. The
  increased phytoplankton also encourages the
  growth of filter-feeding organisms such as
  sponges, tube worms and barnacles which compete
  for space with coral.
• Nutrients also promote the growth of algae that
  overgrows the coral while excessive phosphorus
  concentrations weaken the coral skeleton thus
  making it more susceptible to damage from storm
  action.

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Eutrophication

• Evidence of eutrophication in the phytoplankton
  record is unclear. No long-term records of
  phytoplankton biomass in the Great Barrier Reef
  lagoon exist which would allow us to definitively
  trace long-term trends but there have been
  several studies done in the past. These, along
  with recent studies, will be used to create a new
  benchmark.
• In some small areas of the Reef, evidence of
  eutrophication is indisputable. Large increases
  in the area of seagrass beds around some resort
  islands are associated with the prolonged
  discharge of untreated sewage from the islands.
  Upgraded sewage systems at these resort islands
  have eliminated the problems in recent years.
• In the Whitsunday Island reefs, recently reduced
  coral health and growth have been linked to the
  eutrophication gradient from nutrient discharge
  from the Proserpine River.

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Eutrophication
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Diseases

• There are many diseases and environmental factors
  that are causing the health of all coral reefs in
  the world to decline.
• The Yellow Pox disease is a slow acting disease,
  which can be determined by yellow round rings on
  the sides of coral. The disease starts off with
  clear rings then they turn into a yellow blotch
  around sediment patches.
• The White plague (II) disease is a fast acting
  disease, which spreads about 1 cm per day. A
  potential bacteria pathogen has recently been
  identified and it is a newly discovered species,
  which may represent an entirely new genus. The
  White Plague (I) disease is slower acting.
• The White band (I) disease is also slow acting,
  only affecting Arcropod (branching) species of
  coral. Coral tissue peels off slowly, with a
  white band found at the base and the middle of
  the coral.

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Diseases

• The White band (II) disease often progresses very
  quickly. A bleaching edge precedes the necrotic
  (dead) edge by up to 9 cm per day. The bleaching
  edge can become arrested, allowing the narcotic
  edge to catch up. When this happens, type (I) and
  type (II) of the disease appear very similar. A
  bacterium, similar to one previously isolated
  from sharks, appears to be the cause.
• Diseases in the GBR are an apparent major event
  that is deteriorating the live coral count in the
  Great Barrier Reef.
• Disease has been around for 60 years and it has
  been recorded 5 times in the past 20 years but
  the current amount of disease is to be the
  biggest recorded. 88 of inshore reefs are
  infected to some extent and about 25 are
  severely infected (more than 60 of coral is
  estimated to be affected).

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Global warming

• A change in sea water temperature of as little as
  2-3 degrees Celsius for a few days can cause mass
  coral bleaching, sometimes killing thousands of
  square kilometers of coral.
• Coral Bleaching has been closely linked to Global
  warming which has been suggested to occur because
  of accumulating Greenhouse gasses in the
  atmosphere, which cause the atmosphere to become
  abnormally warm. An effect of climate change is
  heavier and more abundant rainfall in some areas.
  In coastal areas and on some islands the heavy
  rainstorms cause serious soil erosion that can
  result in damage to reefs.
• Sediment, freshwater and agricultural chemicals
  flood off the land, down rivers, and out into the
  sea, inundating the fringing coral reefs. One
  such flood plume from Australia's Fitzroy River
  caused mass coral deaths on the Keppel Island
  reefs.

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Coral bleaching
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Crown of Thorns

• The crown-of-thorns starfish is one of a few
  animals that feed on living coral tissue. It gets
  its name from the dense covering of long sharp
  spines covering its upper surface. At low
  densities this animal is just another part of the
  ecology of a coral reef. However, when the
  crown-of-thorns starfish reaches densities at
  which it eats corals faster than they can grow
  and reproduce, this can lead to major reductions
  in coral cover and result in major disturbance to
  the whole ecology of a reef. This threshold
  density is estimated to be 30 mature
  crown-of-thorns starfish per hectare. Populations
  that exceed this density are known as 'outbreak
  populations'.

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Crown of Thorns
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Crown of Thorns

• The first outbreak populations of crown-of-thorns
  starfish to be noticed and described were at
  Green Island and nearby reefs offshore from
  Cairns in 1962.
• Over the next 14 years this outbreak slowly
  spread southwards as far as reefs offshore from
  Mackay, where it gradually petered out.
• A second outbreak, probably again beginning to
  the north of Cairns and spreading southwards,
  occurred between 1979 and 1991. Both outbreaks
  were mostly confined to mid-shelf coral reefs.
  The second outbreak affected approximately 17 of
  the more than 2800 coral reefs in the World
  Heritage Area, with 5 of reefs having severe
  outbreaks. It is thought that the apparent
  southward spread of outbreaks is due to
  crown-of-thorns starfish larvae being transported
  from one reef to another by the East Australian
  Current.

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Crown of Thorns

• In 1993, the first stages of another outbreak
  were detected. Since then this outbreak has
  developed, with increasing numbers of
  crown-of-thorns starfish being found and
  increasing numbers of reefs being affected.
  Surveys of the Cairns Section of the Marine Park
  in 1994-95 found only two out of 27 surveyed
  reefs (7.4) had reef-wide outbreaks. In 1996-97
  this figure was seven out of 28 (25).
• Thirteen reefs had outbreaks over part of their
  area (spot outbreaks), leaving only eight that
  were completely free from outbreaks. In addition,
  the proportion of observed crown-of-thorns
  starfish that were sexually mature increased
  every year, indicating that the outbreak will
  increase in severity and geographic range.

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COTS outbreaks
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Crown of Thorns

• The effects of a crown-of-thorns starfish
  outbreak on a reef can be highly variable. In the
  second outbreak episode, about 57 of reefs that
  experienced an outbreak suffered 30 to over 50
  coral mortality over at least one-third of their
  perimeters. However, not all reefs were so badly
  affected. On average, this outbreak episode
  caused a 3.4-fold increase in the amount of dead
  coral on affected reefs.
• The crown-of-thorns starfish is an organism that
  can be viewed from two different perspectives.
  Firstly, it is a component of the coral reef
  ecosystem. As such we can consider the issues of
  state, pressure and response as they relate to
  the starfish itself. Secondly, the
  crown-of-thorns starfish can be considered as a
  direct pressure on hard corals (because it feeds
  on them) and an indirect pressure on other reef
  organisms (such as many fishes) that are reliant
  on hard corals for food or shelter.

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Crown of Thorns

• Despite significant research effort, there is
  still uncertainty as to the causes of
  crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks.
• It is possible that these outbreaks are a natural
  phenomenon. The crown-of-thorns starfish has the
  ability to produce very large numbers of
  offspring (a single large female can produce up
  to 60 million eggs in a breeding season),
  allowing populations to grow rapidly under
  favourable conditions.
• There is some geological evidence to suggest that
  outbreaks have occurred on the Great Barrier Reef
  for the last 3000 to 7000 years.

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Crown of Thorns

• Other theories
• It is possible that increased nutrient run-off
  from the land increases the amount of
  phytoplankton in the water. Larval
  crown-of-thorns starfish feed on this
  phytoplankton and an increase in the food supply
  may lead to higher survivorship of the larvae,
  eventually leading to an outbreak.
• Fishing and shell collecting have led to
  decreased numbers of predators of the
  crown-of-thorns starfish. Among these predators
  are the giant triton shell, the humphead maori
  wrasse and some emperors. The reduced numbers of
  these predators is thought by some to allow
  crown-of-thorns starfish populations to increase
  beyond natural levels.

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Crown of Thorns

• Despite substantial research programs since 1972,
  none of the evidence gathered so far, either
  supporting outbreaks as natural phenomena or as
  being caused by human pressures, is unequivocal.
• A recent survey of scientists suggests that most
  believe that crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks
  are natural phenomena, although it is possible
  that the frequency of outbreaks has increased due
  to some human influence.
• The causes of crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks
  are complex and, so far, the role played by
  humans is unclear.

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Agriculture

• Beef grazing on the large, dry catchments
  adjacent to the Marine Park has involved
  extensive tree clearance and over-grazing during
  drought conditions. As a result, widespread soil
  erosion has occurred, and with this, the export
  of the eroded material (with its associated
  nutrient content) into the Great Barrier Reef.
  Cropping, sugar cane being the largest crop, has
  involved intensive fertiliser use as well as
  substantial soil erosion.
• A significant part of the pesticides and
  fertilisers used by farmers end up in coastal
  waters close to inshore reefs. In high
  concentrations, the plant nutrients nitrogen and
  phosphorus (found in fertilisers) can be harmful
  to marine ecosystems. In an attempt to offset
  disturbances to the delicate nutrient balance of
  the marine environment, the Authority encourages
  the preservation of riparian vegetation and
  freshwater wetlands that filter out many
  potentially harmful substances before they reach
  the ocean.

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Urban Run-Off

• Population growth in the towns alongside the
  Queensland coast has resulted in more sewage and
  litter finding its way into the marine
  environment. Urban sewage discharge in river
  systems flowing into the waters adjacent to the
  Marine Park may affect Reef ecosystems, but
  outfalls may lie outside the Authoritys
  jurisdictional boundaries. In such cases there is
  need for complementary policy between Reef
  managers and coastal authorities. Many local
  councils and resorts have opted to recycle
  treated water to irrigate parks, gardens and golf
  courses and agricultural land, or, to divert it
  to road-making projects and for industrial
  purposes.
• Stormwater run-off often sweeps up litter, oil
  and nutrients on its way towards the ocean and
  distributes it throughout the marine ecosystem.
  Litter not only detracts from the aesthetic value
  of the Great Barrier Reef, but can be a
  death-trap for the animals living there.
  Stormwater management systems, including sediment
  and litter traps, are now being implemented in
  coastal cities and towns.

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Urban Run-Off
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Shipping

• Shipping and related activities in the Marine
  Park pose potentially disastrous water quality
  problems for the Great Barrier Reef. Of most
  concern is the threat of a major oil spill.
  Although the Great Barrier Reef has not witnessed
  a major spill, there is still a chance that one
  may occur.
• The potential for adverse environmental impact
  from shipping and related activities is great,
  particularly ship-sourced pollution (deliberate
  and inadvertent) and the introduction of exotic
  organisms, for example through ballast water.
• Exotic organisms have the potential wreak havoc
  on native plants and animals.

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Tourism and Recreation

• Tourism is the principal commercial use of the
  Marine Park, with an approximate annual value in
  excess of 1 billion and visitation rates
  recorded at 1.6 million visitor-days in 1997.
• The primary Tourism uses are summarized as
• Large vessels operating to pontoons moored at
  attractive off-shore reef sites
• Dive operators
• Island resorts
• Cruise ships
• Charter vessels
• Helicopter and aircraft overflights
• Bareboat self-skipper charter

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Tourism and Recreation

• Many popular tourist activities are undertaken
  within the Great Barrier Reef Region. These
  include
• Fish Feeding
• Fishing
• Whale and Dolphin Watching
• Diving and Snorkelling
• Reef Walking
• Turtle Watching

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Fish feeding

• Fish feeding is often the highlight for many
  visitors to the GBR and is quite acceptable
  within the guidelines. It is important to be
  aware that fish feeding may result in undesirably
  aggressive behaviour in some fish and can be
  dangerous to the person feeding the fish or
  others close by in the water.
• Most food fit for human consumption, particularly
  bread and meat, is generally not suitable for
  fish and may damage their health.
• Fishing is one of the most popular activities in
  the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. As
  our population continues to grow, increasing
  pressure is placed upon fish stocks each year and
  there is increasing competition for a limited
  supply of fish.
• Careful treatment and handling of fish caught is
  essential to maintain the quality of table fish,
  or give fish for release the best chance of
  survival.

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Whale and Dolphin Watching

• The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is an
  important breeding and feeding ground for
  cetaceans such as whales and dolphins. There are
  special regulations for whale watching and it is
  a requirement that all commercial users obtain
  permission from management agencies before they
  conduct whale-watching activities. Whale watching
  can be an exciting and educational experience.
  You can help ensure that human activities have
  minimal impact.
• The Whale Protection Act 1980 prohibits the
  killing, taking, injuring and interfering with
  cetaceans. Interference includes harassment,
  chasing and herding of whales.

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Diving and Snorkeling

• Divers with experience or without continue to
  destroy coral in a number of ways. The scrape of
  a diver's fin introduces bacteria to the coral,
  which may lead to the death of a coral that is
  hundreds of years old.
• Some of the divers' flippers and tank straps are
  known to damage coral by banging against it.
  Divers also stand and hold onto brittle coral.
• Anchoring of boats also presents a problem for
  the coral.

61
Diving and Snorkeling

• To provide access for the boats and ships,
  harbors have to be dredged through the corals to
  make way. Dredging rips up the entire coral
  colony and causes increased sediments, which also
  harm corals.
• ReefBase was initiated in late 1993 to
  consolidate and disseminate information useful in
  managing coral reefs. This database, produced by
  ICLARM, is the most comprehensive source of
  information on reefs available, providing
  ecological and socioeconomic data on sites around
  the world. It includes digital maps of coral
  reefs provided by the World Conservation
  Monitoring Centre (WCMC), space shuttle and
  satellite images contributed by the National
  Atmospheric and Space Administration (NASA) and
  others, and photographs of reefs contributed by
  volunteers. ReefBase is called The World Cities
  Data Base.

62
Reef Walking

• Reef walking is a popular way of exploring the
  intertidal area or reef flat, especially for
  those who cannot swim. However, reef walking
  needs to be conducted carefully to avoid serious
  damage to the environment. Often, reef walkers
  decided to take home a souvenir of the GBR, an
  act which is illegal and obviously degrades the
  environment.

63
Turtle Watching

• The Great Barrier Reef is a critical breeding
  ground for four species of turtles. Turtles come
  ashore at night to lay eggs and are easily
  disturbed by light, noise and movement.
• With care it is possible to watch the fascinating
  events of females laying eggs and hatchlings
  emerging from the sand without disturbing the
  turtles.
• All sea turtles are protected in Queensland and
  it is illegal to take any turtles or their eggs.

64
Commercial Fishing

• Commercial fishing provides a variety of seafoods
  as well as employment. Fishing within the waters
  of the reef is restricted to zones determined by
  the GBRMPA. As trawlers become larger and
  technology makes fishing more efficient, marine
  life could be affected.
• One of Australias main shipping lanes runs
  between the outer reefs and the coast. The
  passages through the reefs are carefully marked
  and pilots are available to ensure that the risk
  of collisions and grounding on the reef are
  minimized. However many ships do not use pilots
  and the danger of damaging the reefs is increased.

65
Cyanide Poisoning

• There is an extremely large market for live fish.
  Consumers pay up to 85 per pound to eat live
  fish in Hong Kong and Southern China. Some
  species can be priced as high a 300 per plate.
• Fishermen have therefore developed the Cyanide
  fishing method, squirting sodium cyanide on to
  reefs where fish live, which stuns the fish
  making them easier to catch. If the fish are
  hiding in reef cervices the fishermen will rip
  the corals apart with crowbars just to obtain the
  fish. The live fish trade brings in 1 billion a
  year.
• A major consequence that occurs from Cyanide
  fishing is that the coral and small fish are left
  to die and the reef is unproductive for decades
  to follow. Even though Cyanide fishing is illegal
  it continues due to weak enforcement capacities
  and corruption.

66
Other Human Impacts

• Collecting aquarium fish and live corals for
  European and North American markets has developed
  into another lucrative but sometimes damaging
  industry. Harvesting often kills organisms not
  intended for collection and more than 50 percent
  of the fish collected die before reaching market.
  
• Coral is also harvested to make jewelry, gift
  store curios, coffee table knick-knacks and
  aquarium habitats. Under optimum conditions, many
  corals take 37 years to regenerate (Coral
  Forest).

67
Management Strategies

• Water may carry food, nutrients, larvae or
  pollutants as well as being the home environment
  for many species. Whatever is done to manage part
  of a marine ecosystem must take into account the
  influences carried by the water column.
• The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act was among
  the first in the world to deal comprehensively
  with the management of a marine ecosystem. The
  values which led to the passage of the Act were
  also recognised in 1981 by the inscription of the
  Great Barrier Reef on the World Heritage List.
  The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act provides
  the framework for managing the Great Barrier Reef
  as a large ecosystem.
• In developing zoning plans to provide the means
  of strategic management of the Great Barrier
  Reef, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
  Authority has placed a major emphasis on
  understanding the linkages between sites and
  activities within the Great Barrier Reef and
  between the adjacent mainland.

68
Agriculture

• The GBRMP Authority works with the Queensland
  Department of Primary Industries, the Queensland
  Parks and Wildlife Service, the Department of
  Natural Resources and industry groups to develop
  and implement measures to ease the downstream
  effects of cropping and grazing.
• It is hoped to reduce catchment run-off of
  sediments, nutrients and pesticides through the
  Integrated Catchment Management program. This is
  the principal tool of the Queensland government
  for reducing catchment-based pollutant discharge
  to aquatic systems and the coastal zone.
• Codes of practice are being developed for many
  agricultural industries to address environmental
  problems. These Codes have been developed for the
  cotton and sugar industries, with a dairy
  farmer's horticulture codes under development.

Queensland Department of Primary Industries
69
Shipping and Ballast Water

• The Authority and other agencies dealing with
  shipping on the Great Barrier Reef have
  facilitated shipping management policies to
  prevent exotic organisms from wreaking havoc on
  native plants and animals.
• It is important that the Authority both monitors
  and regulates the discharge of waste water and
  sewage from vessels into the Marine Park. New
  standards for the discharge of sewage from
  vessels are being developed.
• The Authority also works to establish and foster
  liaison and coordination between the agencies
  dealing with shipping in the Great Barrier Reef
  to maintain the prominence of the region as a
  sensitive marine environment and thereby reduce
  the risk of pollution from shipping-related
  activities.

70
Tourism Management

• Tourism use in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
  is jointly managed by the Authority and the
  Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, within the
  statutory framework of Zoning Plans, Plans of
  Management and Permits.
• The volume and profile of tourism use of the
  Great Barrier Reef Marine Park has changed
  significantly in the past 20 years, presenting
  new challenges to managers. The Authoritys new
  approach to managing marine tourism will be based
  on strategic policy and planning, direct
  management, self-regulation by industry and
  active partnerships.

71
Strategic Policy and Planning

• The Authority have developed a Reef-wide plan for
  managing tourism use throughout the Marine Park.
  This will provide a strategic framework for
  future management that will take into account the
  cumulative impacts of tourism use. The planning
  process will identify natural, social, cultural
  and heritage values which could be affected by
  tourism and recreation, and identify methods to
  protect these values.
• The strategies will be implemented through
  changes in legislation and policy, statutory
  Plans of Management, and education and training.
  The first Plans of Management, for the Cairns and
  Whitsundays areas, were gazetted on 22 June 1998.
  These incorporate provisions for protection of
  the values of both areas, and for managing use of
  the Reef, particularly tourism and recreation
  activities.
• These Plans introduce management strategies such
  as settings, limits to use for some sites,
  recognition of historic use of sites by tourist
  operators, and a booking system for access by
  tourism operators to some sites or areas.

72
Self-regulation by the Industry

• Operators also recognise the importance of
  interpretive activities and employ staff with
  appropriate skills to inform passengers about the
  Reef and best practices. For example, the
  Authority is investigating together with the
  marine tourism industry and other stakeholders,
  systems of accreditation for Marine Park guides
  and operators. Authority staff are working
  closely with the Whitsunday bareboat industry to
  pilot a staff training program that will form the
  basis of future accreditation for this industry.
• Volunteer programs also encourage
  self-regulation. These take the form of reporting
  procedures for example COTSWATCH a volunteer
  monitoring and reporting scheme for the
  crown-of-thorns starfish, and Eye on the Reef
  where tourism operators report on their daily
  reef observations.

73
Active Partnerships

• Stakeholder participation will continue to be an
  important component of marine tourism management.
• Formal processes for consultation with the
  tourism industry are being established through
  the Association of Marine Park Tourism Operators
  (AMPTO), and mechanisms for community
  consultation are already established through
  coastal Local Marine Advisory Committees with
  representation from a wide range of stakeholder
  groups. In addition, the new expertise-based Reef
  Advisory Committees are to be established by the
  Authority will advise on key issues related to
  Tourism and Recreation in the Marine Park.
• The Great Barrier Reef Consultative Committee
  will continue to fill a strategic advisory role
  to the Minister and the Authority.

74
Environmental Management Charge

• Marine Park tourism operators are subject to an
  Environmental Management Charge which is
  currently equivalent to 4 per visitor per day
  for standard tourist operations such as day
  trips, extended charters and bareboat hire. The
  charge applies to all operators who hold Marine
  Park permits.
• Commercial operators are required to keep a
  logbook of operations and must supply quarterly
  returns.

75
Fish Feeding

• Fish Feeding in a tourism operation should be
  well supervised and conducted only by staff
• Avoid feeding fish where fishing takes place
• Fish should be fed by throwing food into the
  water, not directly by hand.
• People should not be in the water at the time of
  feeding.
• Feed fish with only raw marine products or fish
  pellets
• Use no more than one kilogram of food per day per
  site

76
Fishing

• Take only what you need and stick to official
  limits.
• If you intend keeping a fish, remove it from the
  hook or net quickly and humanely.
• Return all undersized or unwanted fish to the
  water carefully and quickly.
• Avoid fishing where fish feeding takes place.
• Avoid fishing in areas where fish are gathering
  to spawn.

77
Whale Dolphin Watching

• Avoid all contact with whales with calves.
• If there is a sudden change in whale behaviour,
  move away.
• Report sick, injured or stranded whales or
  dolphins to a relevant authority.
• Use commercial whale watching vessels where
  possible rather than private vessels.

78
Diving and Snorkeling

• Check you are weighted correctly before diving
  and practice buoyancy control away from coral.
• Secure dragging diving equipment such as gauges.
• Do not rest or stand on coral.
• Take extra care when taking underwater
  photographs.
• Avoid touching anything with your fins and try
  not to disturb sediment or coral. If you need to
  rest while snorkeling, try to use the rest
  stations where provided.
• Observe animals rather than handle them. Handling
  some animals may be dangerous.
• Do not chase or attempt to ride or grab
  free-swimming animals and avoid blocking their
  path.
• Do not prod any plants or animals.
• If you pick up anything under water (living or
  dead), always return it to exactly the same
  position.

79
Reef Walking

• Be careful not to step on coral or living matter.
• Follow marked trails and avoid straying.
• If there is no marked trail, locate regularly
  used routes or follow sand channels.
• Use a pole or a stick for balance, not to poke
  animals.
• If you pick up anything, living or dead, always
  return it to the exact position where you found
  it.
• Do not pick up species which are attached to the
  reef flat.
• Be aware of restrictions on collecting in the
  Marine Park.

80
Turtle Watching

• Keep lighting to a minimum.
• Lights should be no more than a three-volt,
  two-cell, hand-held torch.
• Do not approach closely or shine lights on
  turtles leaving the water or moving up the beach.
  
• Avoid shining lights directly on the turtle
  during egg laying.
• Avoid loud noise and sudden movements.
• Keep dogs away. Dogs are not permitted in
  National Parks or on most beach areas.
• Do not light campfires on turtle nesting beaches.
  
• Report the place and date of turtle sightings to
  the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Services.

81
Anchoring or Mooring

• Carry enough chain or chain and line for the
  depth.
• Check out the area before anchoring.
• Anchor in sand or mud away from corals.
• Motor towards the anchor when hauling in.
• Use approved public moorings in preference to
  anchoring. Public moorings are marked by white or
  blue buoys, identified by Marine Parks stickers
  which state limits of use.
• Before using public moorings, read and follow the
  advice given on an information disc attached to
  the mooring pick-up line.

82
Commercial Fishing

• Under offshore constitutional settlement between
  the Australian States and the Australian
  Government, the management of fisheries within
  the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is the
  responsibility of the Queensland Government
  through the Queensland Fisheries Management
  Authority and the Queensland Department of
  Primary Industries.
• The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, in
  its aim to protect the natural qualities of the
  Great Barrier Reef whilst providing for
  reasonable use of the Region, contributes to
  fisheries management through the use of
  management zones which restrict fishing
  activities, and also through involvement in
  fisheries management planning conducted by the
  Queensland Government.

83
Commercial Fishing

• Through collaboration with fisheries management
  agencies and stakeholders, the Authority will
  seek to
• Minimize ecological impact through the
  restriction, cessation or mandatory adoption of
  new technologies to minimize ecological damage of
  those fishing activities that can be judged,
  using the best available information, to be
  significantly damaging the ecosystems
• Establish a comprehensive system of protected
  areas that are representative of the complex
  range of ecological communities found in the
  Marine Park.
• Ensure adequate monitoring and assessment are
  undertaken to determine the impacts of fishing
  activities and the status of harvested stocks,
  non-target species and the ecosystems on which
  they depend
• Undertake and sponsor research designed to
  quantify the ecological impact of fishing
  activities judged to be ecologically damaging
• Ensure that ecologically sustainable fishing
  activities are managed in a way that is
  maintained in perpetuity.

84
Zoning Plans

• One of the primary tools for protecting and
  preserving the Great Barrier Reef, as specified
  by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975,
  is zoning. Zoning separates activities that may
  conflict with each other, such as commercial
  fishing and tourism. Zoning also allows areas
  that need permanent conservation to be protected
  from potentially threatening processes by being
  placed off limits to users (except for the
  purpose of scientific research) for varying
  lengths of time.
• Marine Park zoning plans are not dissimilar to
  planning schemes prepared for local government
  areas. For example, zoning plans provide for
  activities that are as-of-right, with permission
  or prohibited. Each zone category specifies which
  activities can or cannot be undertaken and
  whether or not permission is required to
  undertake those activities.

85
Zoning Plans

• The principle objectives of any zoning plan
  (according to sec. 32(7) of the Act) are
• a. the conservation of the Great Barrier Reef
• b. the regulation of the use of the Marine Park
  so as to protect the Great Barrier Reef while
  allowing reasonable use of the Great Barrier Reef
  Region
• c. the regulation of activities that exploit the
  resources of the Great Barrier Reef Region so as
  to minimise the effect of those activities on the
  Great Barrier Reef
• d. the reservation of some areas of the Great
  Barrier Reef for its appreciation and enjoyment
  by the public and
• e. the preservation of some areas of the Great
  Barrier Reef in its natural state undisturbed by
  man except for the purposes of scientific
  research.

86
Types of Zones

• General Use 'A' Zone
• The least restrictive of the zones, this provides
  for all reasonable uses including shipping and
  trawling. Prohibited activities are mining, oil
  drilling, commercial spearfishing and
  spearfishing with underwater breathing apparatus.
• General Use 'B' Zone
• Provides for reasonable use, including most
  commercial and recreational activities. Trawling
  and general shipping are prohibited as well as
  those activities not allowed in General Use 'A'
  Zone.

87
Types of Zones

• General Use Zone
• Provides areas of Marine Parks for a diverse
  range of recreational and commercial activities,
  consistent with the Region's long term
  conservation.
• Marine National Park 'A' Zone
• Provides for appreciation and recreational use,
  including limited line fishing. Fishing is
  restricted to one line with one hook per person.
  (When trolling for pelagic species more than one
  line may be used.) Spearfishing and collecting
  are prohibited, as well as those activities not
  allowed in General Use 'B' Zone.

88
Types of Zones

• Habitat Protection Zone
• Provides areas of Marine Parks free from the
  effects of trawling, while allowing for a diverse
  range of recreational and commercial activities.
• Estuarine Conservation Zone
• Provides for estuarine areas free from loss of
  vegetation and disturbance and from changes to
  the natural tidal flushing regime, while
  maintaining opportunities for commercial and
  recreational activities.
• Conservation Park Zone
• Provides areas of Marine Parks which allow
  opportunities for their appreciation and
  enjoyment including limited recreational fishing.

89
Types of Zones

• Marine National Park 'B' Zone
• Provides for appreciation and enjoyment of areas
  in their relatively undisturbed state. It is a
  'look but don't take' zone. Fishing and all other
  activities which remove natural resources are
  prohibited.
• Marine National Park Buffer Zone
• Normally 500 metres wide, this zone provides for
  trolling for pelagic species around reefs which
  have been given a level of protection which
  prohibits all fishing. Trolling for pelagic
  species is unlikely to significantly affect the
  'resident' marine life for which protection is
  needed.
• Buffer Zone
• Provides protected areas of Marine Parks and
  allows opportunities for their appreciation and
  enjoyment. Buffer Zones allow mackerel trolling
  in areas adjacent to reefs zoned as National
  Park.

90
Types of Zones

• National Park Zone
• Provides protected areas of Marine Parks of high
  cons - a 'look but don't take' area.
• Scientific Research Zone
• Set aside exclusively for scientific research.
  Entry and use for other reasons is prohibited.
• Preservation Zone
• Provides for the preservation of the area in an
  undisturbed state. All entry is prohibited,
  except in an emergency, with the exception of
  permitted scientific research which cannot be
  conducted elsewhere.

91
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92
Permits

• As a general guide, the following activities
  require a Marine Parks permit.
• Most commercial activities, including tourist
  operations
• Installation and operation of structures, such as
  jetties, marinas, pontoons and mariculture
  facilities
• Any works, such as repairs to structures,
  dredging and dumping, placement and operation of
  moorings
• Anchoring or mooring for an extended period
• Waste discharge from a fixed structure
• Research
• Educational programs
• Traditional hunting.
• Most visitors to the Marine Park will not require
  a permit for recreational activities.

93
Steps in the Permitting Process

• In order to be granted a permit to undertake an
  activity, an application must be submitted to the
  Authority or the Queensland Parks and Wildlife
  Service. It should provide enough information so
  permit assessors can clearly understand what the
  intended activity is and where it is to be
  carried out.
• Furnishing false or misleading information in a
  permit application is an offence and can incur a
  1000 fine. An application for a Marine Parks
  permit to conduct commercial activities requires
  the payment of a Permit Application Assessment
  Fee (PAAF). The fee varies depending on the type
  of operation.

94
Crown of Thorns

• In the absence of definitive information about
  whether crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks are
  natural, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
  Authority has adopted a policy of minimum
  intervention.
• This means that there is no interference with
  crown-of-thorns starfish populations on a large
  scale.
• However, small-scale control programs may be
  permitted by the Authority in areas of tourism or
  scientific importance threatened by
  crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks.

95
Crown of Thorns

• Sodium bisulphate (also known as 'dry acid') has
  been identified as an effective, environmentally
  acceptable agent to kill crown-of-thorns starfish
  on a local scale.
• It is biodegradable and does not affect other
  plants and animals on the reef. The chemical is
  applied by direct injection into the tissues of
  the crown-of-thorns starfish.
• Because of the uncertainty about the causes of
  outbreaks, it is of vital importance that the
  waxing and waning of crown-of-thorns starfish
  populations and their effects on coral reefs are
  closely monitored. This may allow us to further
  understand whether or not these effects are
  sustainable in the long term.

96
Crown of Thorns

• Currently, there are three major monitoring
  programs of crown-of-thorns starfish populations.
• Broadscale surveys are carried out by the
  Australian Institute of Marine Science using
  observers towed on manta boards. This method
  allows the detection of major crown-of-thorns
  starfish outbreaks and simultaneous observations
  of coral cover. These surveys have been carried
  out every year since 1985-86 on reefs spread
  throughout the World Heritage Area.

97
Crown of Thorns

• Fine-scale surveys are carried out by the
  Cooperative Research Centre for Ecologically
  Sustainable Development of the Great Barrier
  Reef.
• These surveys use scuba divers to closely inspect
  the reef surface, allowing detection of much
  smaller sizes and numbers of crown-of-thorns
  starfish than the broadscale surveys.
• Fine-scale surveys have been carried out since
  1994-95 and have only covered reefs in the Cairns
  and Central Sections of the Great Barrier Reef
  Marine Park.

• Observations from reef users are reported through
  the COTSWATCH program.
• This program operates anywhere in the World
  Heritage Area where users go.
• In 1993, it was the results from the COTSWATCH
  program that initially alerted scientists and
  managers to the build-up of crown-of-thorns
  starfish numbers in the Cairns Section.

98
Coral bleaching

• JCU researchers are leading the way in a project
  that aims to research coral bleaching by using
  high frequency radar signals.
• A new remote sensing instrument that is set to be
  up and running by May 2006, will allow
  researchers to see and predict the ocean's
  movements, without them having to get their feet
  wet.
• The radar will help predict in the short term and
  help people to understand the processes better,
  that is, the physical parameters which drive the
  coral bleaching."

99
Evaluation of Management Strategies

• Question
• How would you evaluate the management strategies
  of the GBR?

100
Evaluation of Management Strategies

• Intragenerational equity
• Intergenerational equity

101
Evaluation of Management Strategies

• Precautionary approach
• Multiobjective planning
• Multidisciplinary approach

102
Evaluation of Management Strategies

• Use of technology for management
• Education

103
Evaluation of Management Strategies

• The Management Strategies already in place for
  the Great Barrier Reef are very impressive.
• However, the GBRMPA requires more funding for
  research so those better management strategies
  can be adopted.

• The GBRMPA should look into other case studies of
  coral reef death in other areas of the world and
  implement strategies based on best practice.
• Use of the media for education is another
  possibility in order to increase public knowledge
  and appreciation of the ecosystem.