Review of the evolution of humans: How science and reason need to work together

1
Review of the evolution of humans How science
and reason need to work together
http//anthro.palomar.edu/hominid/australo_1.htm
2
Where did we evolve from?

• Hominids have been around for 8 Million years
• At least a dozen forms have evolved
• More discoveries are still to be made
• Coexisting hominids have occurred and interacted
  with each other
• The last to co-exist with human lived up to 12
  000 years
• Debate still reigns as to the existence of
  ape-like men

http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_floresiensis
Please make sure you have viewed the film Ape to
Man before going further with this Lecture.
Viewable at Google Video
Homo floresiensis is remarkable for its small
body, small brain, and survival until relatively
recent times
Search words Ape to Man
3
About Human Evolution

• Is a Process of Change and Development
• And had lead to the emergence of the species Homo
  sapiens
• It describes the development of Human morphology,
  culture and technology
• It is multi-disciplinary (physical anthropology,
  archaeology, genetics and molecular biology)

4
Paleoanthropology

• Began with the discovery of Neanderthal Man
• Humans and Apes are related
• Idea became legitimized with Charles Darwin
  publication On the Origin of Species

http//www.santanderciudadviva.com/fotos/cultura/n
eanderthal.jpg
light will be thrown on the origin of man and
his history (Darwin 1859)
5
Ardipithecus ramidus A. kadabba

• Proto-human since its teeth are similar to
  Australopithecus.
• Shares several traits with the African great apes
  (genus Pan and genus Gorilla)
• Lived from 5.4 to 4.2 million for A. ramidus and
  5.2 to 5.8 million years ago for A. kadabba
• They are Chimpanzee-sized
• Debate on its bipedalism - toe structure suggests
  that it walked upright but it is believed to have
  lived in shady forests
• Theory of bipedalism is based on the need to move
  out from forests onto the savanna

http//www.nowhow.nl/english/portfolio/ardipithecu
s20ramidus.htm
6
Australopithecus anamensis

• Fossils are 4 million years discovered in 1965
• Complete lower jaw found resembles that of a
  Common Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes),
• Teeth are definitely closer to those of Human
  they had thick enamel but the canines were
  relatively large
• The tibia implies that anamensis was larger than
  ramidus and afarensis
• Mass was between 46 to 55 kilograms -larger than
  other apes at the time
• Was bipedal in posture and locomotion but could
  still climb trees.

http//www.geocities.com/palaeoanthropology/Aaname
nsis.html
7
Australophitecus afarensis

• Lived 3 to 3.9 million years ago
• Found in the Afar Depression, Ethiopia by Donald
  Johanson, Yves Coppens and Tim White in 1974.
• 40 of the skeleton is complete
• Nicknamed Lucy, after the Beatles song "Lucy in
  the Sky with Diamonds".
• Lucy was only 1.2 m (3 feet 8 inches) tall and
  weighed 29 kilograms (65 lbs)
• She resembled a chimpanzee except for her pelvis
  which established that she could walk upright
• This fossil puts doubt on who was the last
  ancestor of humans and chimpanzees

http//www.nowhow.nl/english/portfolio/australopit
ecus20afarensis.htm
8
Australophitecus afarensis - bipedalism

• Savanna Theory dwindling forests and climate
  change forced a living on the plains
• They could still possible have walked on all
  fours since the bones in the hands were curved
  rather than the joints bending.
• Pelvis differs and the legs stuck out to the
  side.
• Walk would be a rocking gait (how chimps walk)
  rather than front-back movement of humans
• Aquatic theory evolved from wading in
  coastal/swamp forests to collect coconuts,
  turtles, bird eggs, shellfish etc

http//www.nowhow.nl/english/portfolio/australopit
ecus20afarensis.htm
Lucys chimpanzee-sized brain, bidealism and
human-like teeth challenged the big brain
hypothesis
9
Australopithecusafricanus
It is generally considered that these early
hominids would have been peaceful plant eaters
but there is now evidence that the taste for meat
was an early feature of their evolution!

• Lived between 3.3 and 2.4 million
• Slender build - 1.2 m tall and 36 kg mass
• Significantly more human than A. afarensis
  teeth, eye orbits and possession of a formen
  magnum but the brain was 400-500 cc
• Fossil from Taung (Kimberley) described by
  Raymond Dart in 1924
• Darts claims of intermediate status between ape
  and man at the time were largely rejected by most
  of the scientific community
• More fossil finds including Mrs. Ples (originally
  Plesianthropus transvaalensis) at Sterkfontein
  (re-classed as a young male)

http//www.ica-net.it/pascal/UOMO_JPG/A.robustus.h
tm
The two most important fossils were Taung Child
and Mrs Ples from Sterkfontein. The fossilized
brain cast established a volume of 485cc
10
Australopithecusafricanus

• Long arms and curved fingers still ape-like
  features and would assist in climbing trees
• Bipedalism better developed than in A. afarnensis
  
• No stone tools (except for the 2.6 million year
  old Australopithecus garhi)

http//www.ica-net.it/pascal/UOMO_JPG/australopith
ecus_africanus01.htm
Australopithecus established an African origin
for human evolution.
Australopithecus was a prey item one skull had
clear tooth marks indicating a leopard was
responsible and their bones have been found in
nest material of eagles.
11
Australopithecus garhi
12
Paranthropus aethiopicus

• Fossils between 2.52.7 million years
  discovered in Ethiopia 1968
• Possible descendent of A. afarensis
• Is a robust form with large bony ridge on top
  of the skull for attachment of jaw muscles an
  adaptation for chewing vegetation, nuts and
  tubers (as in Gorillas)
• No agreement on whether P. boisei and P. robustus
  were its descendents
• Lived in mixed savanna and woodland
• The bizarre, primitive skull suggests that
  Paranthropus was an on its own evolutionary
  branch of the hominid family tree

http//anthro.palomar.edu/hominid/images/A_ethiopi
cus_skull.gif
Black Skull found in 1985, West Turkana, Kenya
13
Paranthropus robustus

• Fossils 1.22.0 million years discovered in
  South Africa by Robert Broom in 1938
• Cranial modifications suggest heavy chewing
  adaptation (nuts and tubers found in the
  woodland/savanna)
• This robust line of australopithecine lead to
  them being put into the genus Paranthropus
• Based on dentition P. robustus rarely lived
  beyond 17 years
• This specimen clearly showed that evolution of
  Homo sapiens was not on a straight path and
  co-existing hominids existed
• Height 11.2m, mass 40-54 kg, brain size 410-530
  cc

http//www.ica-net.it/pascal/UOMO_JPG/A.robustus.h
tm
14
Paranthropus boisei

• Fossils 1.42.6 million years discovered in
  Olduvai, Tanzania by Mary Leakey in 1959
• Classified originally as Zinjanthropus boisei
• Originally found with stone tools and proposed
  direct human ancestry it is now known that it
  co-existed with Homo habilis who was a tool
  maker, and is not a ancestor to Homo.
• Even more specialized for heavy chewing
  adaptation (nuts and tubers found in the
  woodland/savanna)
• Height 1.11.3m, mass 45-68 kg, brain size
  500-550 cc

http//amnh.com/exhibitions/atapuerca/gallery/afri
ca.php?image3pagebranches
The average adult males were almost twice the
weight and height as the females. This is the
largest sexual dimorphism recorded for any hominid
High Carbon-4 signatures in the bones has
suggested that they specialized on C-4 savanna
grasses
15
Kenyanthropus platyops

• Fossils 3.23.5 million years discovered at
  Lake Turkana, Kenya 1999 by Meave Leakey
• Broad, flat face but the toe anatomy suggest that
  it walked fully upright
• A very controversial fossil with Tim White
  suggesting it is not a valid taxon
• Due to the skull fragmentation there is
  considerable distortion and views vary from it
  being Australopithecus afarensis (same age and
  close to Ethiopia) while others indicate the
  cranium is similar to Homo rudolfensisIs
• Meave Leakey interprets this fossil as adaptive
  radiation of bipedalism since it is contemporary
  with other bipedals such as Australopithecus
  afarensis

http//www.archaeologyinfo.com/kenyanthropus.htm
16
Homo habilis

• Fossils are 1.82.5 million years old
  discovered Oduvai, Tanzania between 1962 and 1964
  by Mary and Louis Leakey
• Oldest member of genus Homo very short, with
  disproportionately long arms
• A possible descendent of Australopithecus they
  were similar in size (gt 1.3 m) and even slightly
  lighter in mass (34 kg).
• Their skull was more human than ape-like but half
  the capacity of modern man (590-650 cc)
• One of the earliest tool-makers
• Were they a stable food item for predatory
  animals. There is little evidence to suggest that
  they were a master hunter since large numbers of
  them appear to fall prey to predators. Were they
  scavengers?

http//www.kenyafreak.de/News/Tansania/habilis.htm
17
Homo rudolfensis(Skull 1470)

• Fossils are 1.9 million years old discovered
  Lake Turkana in 1972 by Bernanrd Ngeneo (on team
  dig with Richard Leakey)
• Co-existed with Homo habilis and indeed
  originally was thought to belong to this species
  it has a distinct and larger cranial capacity
  (752cc)
• Some researchers still consider it to be more
  ape-like than human-like, but was a tool-maker
• Uncertain as to whether it is ancestral to Homo
  erectus

http//hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm
Homo rudolfensis made and used tools
18
Do Homo habilis rudolfensis justify inclusion
in the genus Homo?

• They appeared to have lacked slim hips for
  walking long distances, a sophisticated sweating
  system (inferred), narrow birth canal and legs
  longer than arms all considered to mark
  Homo-sapien evolution
• Consequently it is argued that these two species
  are more similar to Australopithecus than Homo
• Many of the features used to put them into the
  genus Homo are inferred characters that cannot be
  known for certain.
• Tool-making was considered but Australopithecus
  gahri had them.

http//hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm
19
Homo ergaster

• Fossils found in East and South Africa. Fossil
  found in Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1984 was called
  Turkana Boy
• They appeared 1.9 to 1.4 million years.
• Tool use belongs to the Acheulean industry
• Distinguished from H. erectus by its thinner
  skull bones
• Reduced sexual dimorphism, a smaller face but a
  larger (700 and 850cc) brain and was up to 1.9m
  in height
• Made hand axes and cleavers

http//hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm
Homo georgicus (below) found in Dmanisi, Georgia
in 1999 and 2001 seems to be intermediate between
Homo habilis and H. erectus and is 1.8 million
years old. Discovered by David Lordkipanidzeis
and represents the oldest hominoid in Europe and
were found in association of implements and
animal bones.
20
Homo erectus

• Fossil discovered by Eugène Dubois in Indonesia
  in 1891. Despite Darwins prediction that humans
  ancestors were probably African most people at
  the time believed in Asian origins
• Homo erectus originally migrated out during the
  Pleistocene glacial period in Africa roughly 2.0
  million years ago
• Relatively tall at 1.79 m, had a brain capacity
  of 950 to 1100cc and fairly modern appearance.
• Was once considered the first maker of tools
  Oldowan style (chipped from one side) and
  Acheulean style (chipped on both sides to form
  the cutting edge)
• Hunter/gatherer community
• Homo erectus near the Solo River in Java existed
  up to 50,000 years ago

The oldest representation of early human migration
http//hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm
Found in India, China and Indonesia but some
researchers suggest that they were an Asian H.
neanderthalensis
21
Homo antecessor

• One of the earliest known hominins in Europe with
  the oldest being 780 000 years found in Spain
  (oldest fossil is H. Georgicus)
• Average brain was 1000 - 1150cc. Fossils have
  numerous cuts of the bones that indicated
  cannibalism
• Are either a descendent or a form of early Homo
  heidelbergensis. Gran Dolina and Sima de los
  Huesos are famous fossil sites
• Earliest hominins found in England found between
  478,000 and 524,000 years old together with signs
  of cannibalism.
• Up to 1.83 m and 91 kg H. antecessors was
  relatively large
• Facial features were a protruding post-cranium,
  absence of forehead and lack of a chin

http//www.elmundo.es/elmundolibro/2004/09/08/no_f
iccion/1094661510.html
Homo antecessor were probably the first Europeans
22
Homo heidelbergensis

• In the fossil record from 600,000 to 250,000
  years ago throughout Europe.
• Descended from African H. ergaster but is similar
  to Homo rhodesiensis found in Zambia

• Tall at 1.8 plus height and with a mass of up to
  91 kg bigger and more muscular than modern
  humans. Brains were from 1100 1400cc.
• Serious hunters and killed and ate animals the
  size of mammoths
• May be the first species to bury their dead, and
  might have had a language, but no art exists
• Made considerable quantities of stone tools far
  more than needed first species to have
  possessions?

Homo cepranensis is a homind some 800,000 to
900,000 years. Found in Italy it may be a cross
between H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis
http//www.evolutionnyc.com/
23
Homo neanderthalensis

• Discovered in Forbes' Quarry, Gibraltar in 1848,
  eight years prior to the "original" discovery in
  a limestone quarry of the Neander Valley by
  Johann Karl Fuhlrott.
• Inhabited Europe and parts of western Asia from
  about 230,000 to 29,000 years ago, during the
  Middle Paleolithic period.
• Considered to be cold adapted short, robust
  bodies, large noses and the largest Homo brains
  (1200 - 1700cc). Height is 1.53-1.65m and mass
  is 76 kg

http//hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm
Mousterian tool case consisted of sophisticated
stone-flakes, task-specific hand axes, and
spears. Either invented the Chatelperronian
themselves or "borrowed" elements from the
incoming modern humans
Ritual burials include grave goods (bison bones).
Pollen found at the sites are from known
medicinal plants
24
Homo neanderthalensis H. sapiens

• A Neanderthal hyoid bone (responsible for voice)
  and a shorter and stouter larynx suggest that
  Neanderthals had a high pitched and sharp voice
  but did they have a language?
• They constructed complex shelters, controlled
  fire, and skinned animals. A hollowed-out bear
  femur with four strategically placed holes plays
  the Do, Re, Mi scale the first musical
  instrument?
• Mitochondrial DNA suggest that Neanderthals were
  not a sub-species of H. sapiens. Nevertheless
  other researcher argue that that they interbred
  with H. sapiens, and are the same species as us.

http//www.neanderthalerart.com/
25
Homo sapiens idaltu

• Lived almost 160,000 years ago the fossil first
  found in Ethiopia in 1997 by Tim White
• Three well preserved skulls with the adult having
  a brain of 1450cc
• Has more archaic features than Cro Magnon and
  represents the oldest H. sapiens they are
  slightly larger, longer and have more pronounced
  brow ridges
• Name idaltu is an Amharic word for "elder".
• Direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens but
  evolved in East Africa

http//www.bradshawfoundation.com/africa-theory.ht
ml
26
Cro Magnon

• Oldest modern humans living in Europe
• Lived 35 000 to 10 000 years ago
• Anatomically modern
• Physiologically more robust with slightly larger
  brains than modern humans
• Fossils first found in 1868 in France

http//hjem.get2net.dk/giver/man/man.htm

• Surviving Cro-Magnon artifacts include huts, cave
  paintings, carvings and antler-tipped spears.
• The remains of tools suggest that they knew how
  to make woven clothing.
• They had huts, constructed of rocks, clay, bones,
  branches, and animal hide/fur.
• Used manganese and iron oxides to paint pictures
• Created the first calendar around 15,000 years

27
Homo floresiensis

• Remarkable for its small body lt 1m and about 25
  kg mass, small brained (380 cc), but survived
  until 12 000 years ago
• Contemporary with modern humans (Homo sapiens) on
  the Indonesian island of Flores
• Fossils found in 2003 with suitably small-sized
  stone artifacts providing evidence that hunted
  animals such as dwarf elephants (Stegodon) and
  the giant lizards
• Used fire for cooking.
• Can be considered a species of diminutive human.
• Nicknamed the "hobbit"
• Is it the small furry man called Ebu Gogo
  described living up to the 19th century?

Who is its closest relative? Some researchers
have argued that they represents an extreme form
of Island Dwarfism of Homo erectus, but others
argue its derived from Australopithecus that got
to Asia.
Source of the legends of the little People?
28
Modern man

• The human brain is capable of thought, reason,
  speech, language and introspection
• As a result modern humans have developed art,
  culture, religion, philosophy and technology to a
  higher level than any other species
• While appearing diverse in form and structure
  from light-skinned to dark-skinned and from gt1.4m
  height (Zaire Pygmies) to gt1.83m the Tutsi of
  Burundi and Rwanda genetically humans are
  incredibly similar (Chimps have more diversity)

29
Eoanthropus dawsoni (Piltdown)

• This fake fossil cranium and lower jaw was
  presented to the world in 1912 by Charles Dawson
  and Arthur Smith Woodward and accepted as the
  missing link
• Having a large brain but ape-like jaw it was
  dated at 500 000 years based on sediments and
  other genuine fossils introduced to the site.
• Exposed in 1953 as a forgery Radio carbon
  dating showed the cranium was less than 1,000
  years old. Its unusual thickness suggests Paget's
  disease, a hereditary thickening of bone
• The lower jaw was some 500 years old orang-utan
  and the teeth had been filed down.
• The bones had been chemically hardened, stained
  and burnt to appear older.

http//www.3d-art.co.uk/3dpages/3ded/king-4.html
30
Chapter 1 Review of Human Evolution
Chapter 2 History and Civilization
Chapter 3 Philosophy of Science
Chapter 4 To be announced
Chapter 5 To be announced
Chapter 6 To be announced
Chapter 7 To be announced
Chapter 8 To be announced
Chapter 9 To be announced
I hope that you found chapter 1 informative, and
that you enjoy chapter 2.