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Title: Effective Instruction for Adolescent Struggling Readers Professional Development Module


1
Effective Instruction for Adolescent
Struggling Readers Professional Development
Module
  • Christy S. Murray, Jade Wexler, Sharon Vaughn,
  • Greg Roberts, Kathryn Klingler Tackett
  • The University of Texas at Austin
  • Marcia Kosanovich
  • Florida State University

2
The Center on Instruction is operated by RMC
Research Corporation in partnership with the
Florida Center for Reading Research at Florida
StateUniversity Horizon Research Inc. RG
Research Group the Texas Institute for
Measurement,Evaluation, and Statistics at the
University of Houston and the VaughnGross
Center for Reading and Language Arts at The
University of Texas at Austin.The contents of
this PowerPoint presentation were developed under
cooperative agreement S283B050034 with the U.S.
Department of Education. However, these contents
do not necessarilyrepresent the policy of the
Department of Education, and one should
notassume endorsement by the federal
government.2008 The Center on Instruction
requests that no changes be made to the content
or appearance of this product. To download a
copy of this document, visit www.centeroninstructi
on.org.

3
Adolescent Literacy Research and Practice
  • One in three fourth-graders is reading below a
    basic level.
  • Only 31 percent of eighth-graders are proficient
    readers.

(Lee, Grigg, Donahue, 2007)
4
Essential Components of Reading Elementary Level
vs. Secondary Level
5
Objectives
  • Enhance your understanding of selected
    research-based instructional practices associated
    with positive effects for adolescent struggling
    readers.
  • Learn how to implement these research-based
    practices.
  • NOTE Assessment and its influence on
    instruction will not be a focus of this
    presentation.

6
Reading Interventions for Adolescent Struggling
Readers A Meta-analysis With Implications for
Practice
  • Overall, how effective are the reading
    interventions for adolescent struggling readers
    that have been examined in research studies?
  • What is the specific impact of these reading
    interventions on measures of reading
    comprehension?
  • What is the specific impact of these reading
    interventions on students with learning
    disabilities?
  • Available for download www.centeroninstruction.or
    g.

7
Scientific Rigor of Highlighted Studies
  • All highlighted studies usedrandom assignment
  • and
  • standardized measures.

8
General Findings of the Meta-Analysis
  • Various levels of intervention effectiveness
  • Students with LD vs. students without LD
  • Researcher-implemented vs. teacher-implemented
    and
  • Students at the middle school level vs. students
    at the high school level.

9
Highlighted Studies Caveat
  • The instructional practices used in the studies
    we selected represent some of the practices
    associated with improved outcomes for students in
    grades 412.
  • The scope of this presentation does not allow us
    to present all studies and referenced practices
    from the meta-analysis.

10
Essential Components of Reading for Adolescents
  • Word Study
  • Fluency
  • Vocabulary
  • Comprehension
  • Motivation

11
What is Word Study?
  • What do I do when my students with reading
    disabilities and difficulties cannot read
    grade-level words accurately?

12
Word StudyPractices that improve word-level
reading
  • Research indicates that
  • Older students in need can benefit from word
    study instruction (Edmonds et al., in press
    Scammacca et al., 2007).

13
COI Meta-analysis
  • IMPLICATION
  • For older students struggling at the word level,
    specific word study intervention is associated
    with improved reading outcomes.
  • FINDING
  • Interventions focused on word study had a
    moderate overall effect.

14
Word Study
(Bhattacharya Ehri, 2004 Nagy, Berninger,
Abbott, 2006 Boardman et al., 2008)
15
Reasons for Word Study Difficulties
  • Students might not have been effectively taught
    how to decode in the earlier grades.
  • Students might not have been given adequate
    opportunities for practice.
  • Students may struggle to understand letter-sound
    correspondences or the rules of the English
    language.

16
Strategies for Teaching Word Study
  • Following are examples of two types of word study
    practices that can be used with older readers.

17
Word Study Instructional Practice 1
  • Instruction in orthographic processing, or the
    ability to recognize letter patterns in words and
    their corresponding sound units.

Instructional focus Various advanced word study
components such as syllable types and blending
multisyllabic words.
18
Instructional Practice 1 Example
Mumble mum ble
Locate lo cate
Invalid in val id
19
Instructional Practice 1 How do I Teach it?
  • Teach students to identify and break words into
    syllable types.
  • Teach students when and how to read multisyllabic
    words by blending the parts.
  • Teach students to recognize irregular words that
    do not follow predictable patterns.
  • Teach students to apply these practices to
    academic words (e.g., tangent, democracy,
    precision).

20
Syllable Types and Examples
  • Closed (e.g., cat) short vowel
  • Open (e.g., no) long vowel
  • Vowel-consonant-e (e.g., like) e makes vowel
    long
  • Consonant-le (e.g., mumble)
  • R-controlled (e.g., ar, or, er, ir, ur)
  • Double vowel (e.g., team)

21
Word Study Instructional Practice 2
  • Expose students to information and strategies
    that will help students gain access to the
    meaning of words and make the connection between
    decoding and comprehension.

Instructional focus Prefixes, suffixes,
inflectional endings, root words, and base
words.
22
Instructional Practice 2 Example
Transplanted trans (across) plant (base
word) ed (happened in the past)
Useless use (base word) less (without not)
Careful care (base word) ful (full of)
23
Instructional Practice 2 How Do I Teach It?
  • Teach students the meanings of common prefixes,
    suffixes, inflectional endings, and roots.
  • Provide instruction in how and when to use
    structural analysis to decode unknown words.

24
Highlighted StudyBhattacharya Ehri (2004)
Participants 60 struggling readers
(non-LD), grades 6 through 9
Received one of two interventions provided by a
researcher for four sessions totaling 110
minutes.
Received current school instruction. (Comparison
Group) n 20
Syllable Chunking n 20
Whole Word Reading n 20
25
Syllable Chunking Intervention
  • Students were taught to
  • Orally divide multisyllabic words into
    syllables
  • State the number of syllables
  • Match syllables to their spelling and
  • Blend the syllables to say the whole word.

26
Five Steps in Syllable Chunking Intervention
Students read the word aloud. If incorrect, they
were told the word and repeated it.
Students explained the words meaning. If
incorrect, they were provided corrective feedback.
Students orally divided the words pronunciation
into its syllables or beats by raising a finger
as each beat was pronounced and then stated the
number of beats. If incorrect, the experimenter
modeled the correct response. (e.g., fin ish
two beats)
27
Five Steps in Syllable Chunking Intervention
(continued)
Students matched the pronounced form of each beat
to its spelling by exposing that part of the
spelling as it was pronounced, while covering
the other letters. (Different ways of dividing
words into syllables were accepted.) If
incorrect, the experimenter modeled and explained
the correct segmentation and students copied the
response.
Students blended the syllables to say the whole
word. If incorrect, they were told the word and
repeated it.
28
Syllable Chunking InterventionLearning Trials
Read and analyzed 25 words on each of the 4 days.
  • Words were presented on index cards one at a time
    over four learning trials in random orders.
  • Trial 1 Perform all five steps.
  • Trials 24 Perform all steps except step 2.

29
Whole Word Reading Intervention
  • Students practiced reading multisyllabic words
    with no applied strategy.

30
Three Steps in Whole Word Reading Intervention
Students read the word aloud. If incorrect, they
were told the word and repeated it.
Students explained the words meaning. If
incorrect, they were told the meaning.
Students read the word again by looking at the
print. If incorrect, they were told the word and
repeated it.
31
Whole Word Reading InterventionLearning Trials
Read and analyzed 25 words on each of the 4 days.
32
Highlighted StudyBhattacharya Ehri (2004)
Participants 60 struggling readers
(non-LD), grades 6 through 9
Received one of two interventions provided by a
researcher for four sessions totaling 110
minutes.
Received current school instruction. (Comparison
Group) n 20
Whole Word Reading n 20
Syllable Chunking n 20
33
Current School Practice(Comparison Condition)
  • Students received the schools
  • typical reading instruction.

34
Which Strategy do You Think was Most Effective?
Why?
  • Study Findings
  • Syllable training enhanced readers decoding
    ability on transfer tasks.
  • Syllable training enhanced readers ability to
    retain spellings of words in memory.
  • Whole word training was not found to help
    struggling readers on any of the decoding or
    spelling transfer tasks.

35
Implications for the Classroom
There is value in teaching adolescent
struggling readers to read multisyllabic words
by matching syllables to pronunciations.
Instruction in word study for the weakest
readers is needed as well as comprehension
strategy instruction.
Authors note that the intervention could be
enhanced by also teaching students information
about root words and affixes, syllable types,
etc.
36
Participant Activity
  • You are teaching a sixth-grade reading class,
  • and several of your students are having
  • difficulty reading words.
  • You decide to try a syllable chunking
  • strategy with these students.

37
Syllable Chunking Intervention
38
Syllable Chunking Strategy
Instruction
Dictionary
Compensate
Federal
39
Conclusions About Word Study Instruction
  • For adolescent readers who struggle at the word
    level, instruction in word study skills can
    improve word identification skills.
  • There are a variety of instructional methods for
    this purpose, but most involve teaching students
    to decode words by recognizing syllables types or
    by analyzing parts of words.

40
What is Fluency?
  • What do I do when my students with reading
    disabilities and difficulties cannot read words
    with automaticity?

41
Fluency The ability to read text with speed,
accuracy, and prosody (expression)
  • Research indicates that
  • Word study and comprehension are related to
    fluency (Shinn Good, 1992).
  • Fluency does not cause comprehension, but is
    one necessary component of successful reading
    (Rasinski et al., 2005).

42
COI Meta-analysis
  • FINDING
  • More research on fluency is needed with older
    students.
  • IMPLICATION
  • Fluency practices associated with improved
    outcomes with younger students may apply to older
    students struggling with fluency.

43
Fluency
(Boardman et al., 2008)
44
Reasons for Fluency Difficulties
  • Students are focusing too much cognitive effort
    on decoding the text.
  • Students are not cognizant of punctuations role
    in reading.
  • Students have a weak sight word vocabulary.
  • Students have had limited exposure, instruction,
    and practice with reading text fluently or at
    all.
  • Students are unfamiliar with the meaning of words
    in text.

45
Fluency Differing Instructional Needs
  • Adolescents whose oral reading rate on
    grade-level text is
  • Below 70 wcpm need more practice with word
    recognition in addition to fluency practice
  • Between 70 and 120 wcpm may benefit from regular
    fluency instruction and
  • Greater than 120 wcpm may benefit more from
    increased vocabulary and comprehension
    instruction rather than increased fluency
    instruction.

Ranges are approximations.
46
What areRepeated Reading and Wide Reading?
  • Wide Reading
  • Reading many different types of text
  • Repeated Reading
  • Reading and listening to the same passage several
    times

47
Rationale for Repeated Reading at the Secondary
Level
  • Repeated reading may be appropriate when
    providing students with practice on a targeted
    list of words.
  • Students will have multiple exposures to words
    that may build their sight vocabulary and
    automaticity.
  • Repeated reading interventions have been shown to
    have positive outcomes for students with reading
    difficulties in the younger grades (Chard,
    Vaughn, Tyler, 2002). Therefore, repeated
    reading interventions may have a similar effect
    for students in the secondary grades at an early
    reading level. (Please note that more research in
    this area is needed).

48
Challenges Associated With Repeated Reading
  • Repeated Reading
  • Increases in speed generally fail to transfer to
    other texts unless there is word overlap
    (Rashotte Torgesen, 1985).
  • May not be more effective than wide reading for
    increasing reading speed (Homan, Klesius, Hite,
    1993).
  • Limits students exposure to content, vocabulary,
    and different text types.

49
Rationale for Wide Reading at the Secondary Level
  • Wide Reading
  • Students are exposed to a variety of text
    structures and vocabulary (which coincides with
    the expectations of reading a wide variety of
    text in the upper grades).
  • Students are exposed to more content (when
    compared to repeated reading), which may increase
    word/background knowledge. Background knowledge
    can have a positive impact on comprehension
    (Hansen Pearson, 1983).
  • There is less likelihood that students will see
    the same words over and over again across a
    variety of texts.

50
Wide Reading vs. Repeated ReadingWhich is More
Effective?
  • More research is needed in the area of fluency
  • instruction for older students.
  • Recommendation
  • Use a combination of repeated reading and wide
    reading.
  • Repeated reading provides opportunities for
    students to improve and automate their sight
    vocabulary.
  • Wide reading exposes students to new and
    different content, vocabulary, and text types.

51
Repeated Reading Considerations for Use
  • Combine with word learning.
  • Select passages that include targeted
    vocabulary and/or passages at the students
    independent level.
  • Monitor progress and provide feedback to
    students.
  • Support reading with modeling and feedback from
    teacher or peers.
  • Involve students in progress monitoring of
    fluency goals.
  • As students improve, increase passage difficulty.

52
Wide Reading Considerations for Use
  • Select passages at the students independent or
    instructional reading level.
  • Practice fluency with successive passages but do
    not reread the same passage repeatedly.
  • Monitor progress and provide frequent feedback.
  • Support reading with modeling and feedback from
    teacher or peers.
  • Involve students in progress monitoring of
    fluency goals.
  • As students improve, increase passage difficulty.

53
Fluency Interventions Alone Do Not Improve
Comprehension
  • Fluency practice is most effective when combined
    with instruction in decoding (for select
    students) and/or comprehension instruction.

54
Partner Reading
  • Partner reading is a widely used strategy that
    provides the opportunity to practice oral reading
    with immediate and explicit feedback and
    incorporates the opportunity to engage in
    comprehension practice. Partner reading
  • May benefit both partners in fluency development
  • Engages students in fluency monitoring practices
    and
  • Improves self-monitoring practices during reading.

55
Partner ReadingConsiderations for Use
  • Use at least 3 days per week with students who
    need practice developing their ability to read
    fluently.
  • Should last no more than 1520 minutes per day or
    every other day. Spend a majority of
    instructional time on other components of
    reading.
  • Pair partners based on data Place slightly
    higher-level reader with lower-level reader.
    (Having a model of good reading is essential.)

56
Partner ReadingConsiderations for Use (continued)
  • Use reading materials that are at the independent
    or instructional level of the more struggling
    reader.
  • Set individual and partner goals for reading
    fluency. Have students graph their best results.

57
Specific Skills to Teach
  • What counts as an incorrect response.
  • How to sit with partners and locate materials.
  • How to time each other.
  • How to underline incorrect words.
  • How to use correction procedures.
  • How to calculate words correct per minute.
  • How to graph results.

58
How Do I Implement Partner Reading?
Discuss fluency and its importance.
Model use of partner reading strategies.
Provide guided practice.
Provide independent practice with support.
59
Teacher Responsibilities
  • Prepare student folders with new passages (one
    for each student to read and/or follow along with
    their partner).
  • Observe students during partner reading to
    monitor fidelity of procedures and accuracy of
    error checking.
  • Check folders (accuracy, graphs).
  • Move students to next level.

60
Practice Who Needs Fluency Instruction?Example 1
  • Anna is a ninth-grader reading 40 wcpm on
    eighth-grade-level text. Her teacher has noticed
    that she often has difficulty decoding words. She
    did not pass the state test. Does Anna need
    fluency instruction?

YES, but she also needs explicit instruction in
word study. She would also benefit from
instruction to boost her vocabulary knowledge
and overall verbal reasoning/comprehension
ability.
61
Example 2
  • Jose is a 10th-grader reading 111 wcpm on
    8th-grade-level text and is more than 95 percent
    accurate. He did not pass the state test. What
    does this tell us about Jose? Does he need
    fluency instruction?

Jose is fairly fluent. He may need some fluency
instruction, but the fact that he is reading at
least 100 wcpm and is very accurate and still
not passing the state test tells us that Jose
may need instruction to boost comprehension,
verbal reasoning, and word knowledge in addition
to fluency instruction.
62
Example 3
  • Maria is reading 62 wcpm, but she is 96 percent
    accurate. She did pass the state test, but she
    had an extended time accommodation. Does Maria
    need fluency instruction?

YES, Maria would most likely benefit from fluency
instruction. She might benefit from some
instruction in word study (especially in sight
words), but because she is so accurate, she
needs practice to increase the rate at which she
is reading. Although she is slow, with
accommodations she was able to demonstrate good
comprehension by passing the state test, which
is a positive indication of her comprehension
ability.
63
Fluency InstructionConclusions
  • The level of fluency required for secondary
    struggling readers to read effectively and
    understand text is not entirely clear.
  • For some students, fluency may help build a link
    between decoding and comprehension, but fluency
    does not cause comprehension.
  • Teachers should not spend a lot of time on
    fluency instruction and should pair it with
    instruction in decoding and/or vocabulary and
    comprehension-enhancing practices.

64
What is Vocabulary?
  • What do I do when my students with reading
    disabilities and difficulties do not know what a
    majority of words in text mean and cannot use
    word-meaning knowledge to enhance their
    comprehension?

65
Vocabulary is
The ability to understand and use a word
effectively and appropriately to foster
comprehension.
66
Research on Vocabulary A Vocabulary Continuum
  • Ive never heard of this word.
  • Ive heard of this word, but Im not really sure
    what it means.
  • I can recognize the word in context.
  • I know the word well, including its various
    forms, definitions, and uses.

(Dale, 1965)
67
COI Meta-analysis
  • FINDING
  • Vocabulary interventions had the largest overall
    effect size.
  • IMPLICATIONS
  • We know that directly teaching students the
    meaning of words and how to use strategies to
    uncover meanings of words can improve students
    knowledge of the words taught.
  • What we dont know is whether or how vocabulary
    instruction influences comprehension.

68
COI Meta-Analysis
  • FINDING
  • Vocabulary interventions had the largest overall
    effect size.

CAVEAT Standardized measures are not typically
used for measuring vocabulary knowledge and
use. Only researcher-developed measures were used
in the studies in the meta-analysis.
69
Vocabulary
(Boardman et al., 2008)
70
Reasons for Vocabulary Difficulties
  • Lack of exposure to words (through reading,
    speaking, and listening).
  • Lack of background knowledge related to words.
  • Lack of direct vocabulary instruction.

71
Teaching Vocabulary Words and Meaning
  • Effectively teaching vocabulary words does not
    mean asking students to memorize definitions, nor
    does it mean teaching students unfriendly and
    complex descriptions of words.
  • Effectively teaching vocabulary words assures
    that students have opportunities to know what
    words mean and how to use them in oral and
    written language.

72
Vocabulary InstructionUse All of These
Approaches That Match Instructional Needs
Word Consciousness
Additive Vocabulary
Generative Vocabulary
Academic Vocabulary
73
Word Consciousness
  • Word consciousness refers to an awareness that
    words have multiple meanings in various contexts.
  • Example Assembly
  • Use various instructional approaches.

74
Additive Vocabulary Instruction
  • Explicit instruction of specific words.
  • Think about your goals for instruction when
    selecting words.
  • Becks Three Tiers of Vocabulary.

75
Three Tiers of Vocabulary Words
Tier 3 Words Rarely in text or are content
specific.
Tier 2 Words Appear frequently in many contexts.
Tier 1 Words Words students are likely to know.
(Beck, McKeown, Kucan, 2002)
76
Selecting Tier 2 Words
  • Tier 2 words are
  • Frequently encountered
  • Crucial to understanding the main idea of text
  • Not a part of students prior knowledge (not Tier
    1 words) and
  • Unlikely to be learned independently through the
    use of context or structural analysis.
  • REMINDER Tier 2 words should be taught before
    students read, and discussed and used frequently
    afterward.
  • (Beck, McKeown, Kucan, 2002)

77
Seventh-Grade Text
  • Alexander Graham Bell is known as the inventor
    of the telephone. His assistant was named Thomas
    A. Watson. Together, Bell and Watson discovered
    how sound, including speech, could be transmitted
    through wires, and Bell received a patent for
    such a device. In 1876, the telephone was
    officially invented and the first telephone
    company was founded on July 9, 1877.

78
Ninth-Grade Textfrom Tuck Everlasting
  • The road that led to Treegap had been trod out
    long before by a herd of cows who were, to say
    the least, relaxed. It wandered along in curves
    and easy angles, swayed off and up in a pleasant
    tangent to the top of a small hill, ambled down
    again between fringes of bee-hung clover, and
    then cut sidewise across the meadow.

(Babbitt, 1975)
79
Which Words are Tier 2 Words?
  • The road that led to Treegap had been trod out
    long before by a herd of cows who were, to say
    the least, relaxed. It wandered along in curves
    and easy angles, swayed off and up in a pleasant
    tangent to the top of a small hill, ambled down
    again between fringes of bee-hung clover, and
    then cut sidewise across the meadow.

(Babbitt, 1975)
80
Additive Vocabulary InstructionSpecific
Strategies
  • Teach multiple meanings of words and provide many
    exposures to target words.
  • Provide engaging activities creating definitions
    and nondefinitions, drawing pictures, and other
    games.
  • Restructure and clarify tasks, as necessary.

81
Generative Vocabulary Instruction
  • Teaching words and related words
  • Example Involuntary
  • volunteer Choosing an action
  • in Not
  • ary Associated with
  • Involuntary refers to something that happens
    not by choice.
  • Example sentence
  • Blinking your eyes regularly is an involuntary
    action.

82
Generative Vocabulary InstructionSpecific
Strategies
  • Promote wide reading of texts.
  • Promote opportunities to use target words.
  • Connect new words to oral language or reading
    materials.
  • Play word games and explore interesting uses of
    words.
  • Use key word strategies that provide phonetic or
    visual links to target words.
  • Show students how to break words into parts and
    to use other strategies to identify meaning.

83
Academic Vocabulary Instruction
  • Concentrate on meanings of words within a
    specific context.
  • Can be taken from content-area materials.
  • May be Tier 3 words.
  • Example Conductor.

84
Academic Vocabulary InstructionSpecific
Strategies
  • Use content-area materials to identify
    vocabulary.
  • Obtain depth of understanding by providing
    multiple exposures and various contexts.
  • Use assessment procedures to identify words that
    students need to know.
  • Provide explicit instruction.
  • Use computer technology.

85
Conclusions About Vocabulary Instruction
  • A good reader uses vocabulary to foster
    comprehension.
  • Teachers can do the following to effectively
    enhance students vocabulary
  • Promote word consciousness
  • Use additive vocabulary instruction
  • Use generative vocabulary instruction and
  • Teach academic vocabulary.
  • Teachers should carefully choose the type of
    vocabulary instruction they provide by examining
    the goals of their lessons.

86
What is Reading Comprehension?
  • What do I do when my students with reading
    disabilities and difficulties do not use
    strategies to enhance comprehension?

87
Comprehension is
  • The ability to construct meaning and learn from
    text using a variety of applied strategies.
  • The ultimate purpose of reading.
  • Research indicates that to teach students to
    construct meaning from text, teachers need a firm
    grasp of
  • Strategies that successful readers use when
    creating meaning from text and
  • Effective instructional methods to teach such
    successful strategies (National Reading Panel,
    2000).

88
COI Meta-analysis
  • FINDING
  • The effect for reading comprehension strategy
    interventions was medium to large.
  • IMPLICATIONS
  • Reading comprehension interventions can have a
    significant impact on adolescent struggling
    readers.
  • Providing comprehension strategy instruction
    throughout the day provides opportunities for
    multiple exposures and use of strategies with a
    variety of texts.

89
Comprehension
(Boardman et al., 2008. Adapted from Denton et
al., 2007 Pressley, 2006.)
90
Reasons for Comprehension Difficulties
  • Lack of appropriate prior knowledge.
  • Inability to relate content to prior knowledge.
  • Over-reliance on background knowledge.
  • Inability to read text fluently.
  • Difficulty with decoding words
  • Inability to attend to meaning while reading.
  • Inability to apply comprehension strategies.
  • Difficulty with understanding meaning of words.

91
Components of Comprehension Strategy Instruction
Activate Prior Knowledge
Answer/Generate Questions
Multicomponent Instruction
Monitor Comprehension
Summarize Using Graphic Organizers
(Adapted from Simmons, Rupley, Vaughn, Edmonds,
2006)
92
Anticipate What You Will Learn
  • Preview slides and handouts.
  • Make a prediction What will you learn during
    this portion of the professional development?

93
Component 1 Activate Prior Knowledge
  • What is it?
  • Existing information students have about a topic,
    skill, or idea.
  • Why is it important?
  • Helps students make connections between what they
    already know and what they are reading.

94
Activate Prior KnowledgeEffective Strategies
  • Previewing Text

Making/Monitoring Predictions
95
Previewing Text
  • Instructional Steps
  • Model by thinking aloud.
  • Highlight headings, pictures, key words.
  • Provide small-group practice.
  • Provide independent practice.

96
Making/Monitoring Predictions
  • After previewing text, ask students to make
    informed comments about the text and what they
    will learn.
  • Do not solicit guesses.
  • Keep it brief.
  • Revisit after reading to confirm or disconfirm
    predictions.
  • Provide key ideas or concepts to build background
    knowledge.

97
Other Ways to Activate Prior Knowledge
  • Preview the material by identifying key words or
    concepts.
  • Have students briefly discuss what they know
    about a topic.
  • Explain the use of a word splash.
  • Describe the use of a KWL chart.
  • Demonstrate the use of an anticipation guide.

98
Component 2 Answering and Generating Questions
  • What is it?
  • Strategies that assist students in answering
    comprehension questions and generating their own
    questions about the text to facilitate
    understanding.
  • Why is it important?
  • Teaches students where and how to find answers.

99
Answering and Generating QuestionsEffective
Strategies
Levels of Questions
Self-Questioning
100
Strategy 1 Determining Levels of Questions
Level 3 Making Connections Cannot be answered by
looking in text alone
Level 2 Putting it Together Put pieces of
information from text together to come up with
answer
Level 1 Right There Easier questions, one- or
two-word answers
(Simmons, Rupley, Vaughn, Edmonds, 2006
UTCRLA, 2003 Blachowicz Ogle, 2001 Bos
Vaughn, 2002 NIFL, 2001 NRP, 2000 Raphael,
1986)
101
Goals of Using Leveled Questions
  • Help students ask and answer increasingly
    sophisticated types of questions.
  • Help students become better consumers of text by
    being able to ask and answer both simple and
    complex questions.
  • Show students how to approach different types of
    questions.

(Simmons, Rupley, Vaughn, Edmonds, 2006)
102
Explicitly Teach Each Question Level
Introduce one level of question at a time.
Model how to answer each level of question.
Provide guided practice.
Provide supported, independent practice. Provide
immediate feedback to students.
(Simmons, Rupley, Vaughn, Edmonds, 2006
UTCRLA, 2003 Blachowicz Ogle, 2001 Bos
Vaughn, 2002 NIFL, 2001 NRP, 2000 Raphael,
1986)
103
Strategy 2 Self-Questioning
  • The act of asking yourself questions as you read,
    such as
  • Where is this story taking place?
  • Why is this information important for me to know?
  • This strategy is also used to monitor
    comprehension.

104
Explicitly Teaching Self-Questioning
  • Model how to self-question.

Provide guided practice.
Provide supported, independent practice. Provide
immediate feedback to students.
105
What Does Self-Questioning Look Like?
  • Materials
  • Handout 9, Tornadoes
  • Scratch paper and pencils

106
Component 3 Monitoring Comprehension
Strategies
  • What are they?
  • Strategies that enable students to keep track of
    their understanding as they read and to implement
    fix-up strategies when understanding breaks
    down.
  • Why are they important?
  • By monitoring their understanding, students
    become more independent in understanding what is
    being read.

107
Effective Strategies forMonitoring Comprehension
Main Idea
Fix-up Strategies
108
Strategy 1 Finding the Main Idea
Identify the most important who or what.
Identify the most important information about
the who or what.
Write this information in one short sentence
(e.g., 10 words or less).
(Klingner, Vaughn, Schumm, 1998)
109
What Does Finding the Main Idea Look Like?
  • Materials
  • Handout 9, Tornadoesone per participant
  • Handout 10, Finding the Main Ideaone per
    participant

110
Strategy 2 Fix-Up Strategies
Rereading, restating
Stopping when you come to a word that you do not
know
Using strategies to figure out unfamiliar words
or phrases (e.g., context clues, breaking the
word apart)
(Klingner, Vaughn, Dimino, Schumm, Bryant, 2001)
111
Component 4 Graphic Organizers and
Summarization
Graphic organizers can be used to aid students
with summarization.

112
Graphic Organizers
  • What are they?
  • Visual representations of ideas in text.
  • Why are they important?
  • Assist students in identifying, organizing, and
    remembering important ideas.

113
Graphic Organizers can be Used to
  • Activate relevant background knowledge
  • Guide students thinking about the text
  • Help students remember important elements and
    information in texts
  • Help students see and understand how concepts
    relate to one another within a text
  • Promote both questioning and discussion as
    students collaborate and share ideas and
  • Provide a springboard for organizing and writing
    summaries.

(Simmons, Rupley, Vaughn, Edmonds, 2006)
114
Graphic Organizer for Summarization
(Simmons, Rupley, Vaughn, Edmonds, 2006)
115
Summarization Instruction
  • What is it?
  • Strategies to help students identify the most
    important elements of what they read.
  • Why is it important?
  • Enhances ability to synthesize large amounts of
    information during and after reading.

116
Before SummarizingUsing the Graphic Organizer
  • Teacher introduces the graphic organizer (GO) and
    explains its purpose.
  • Teacher provides the big idea of the passage
    and writes it in the center of the GO.
  • Students read the passage, paragraph by
    paragraph, and record the main idea of each
    paragraph on the GO.

Main Idea
Main Idea
Big Idea
Main Idea
Main Idea
(Simmons, Rupley, Vaughn, Edmonds, 2006)
117
Summarization Steps for Students
Write a topic sentence using the big idea.

1
Include main ideas in an order that makes sense.
2
Delete information that is redundant or trivial.
3
Reread for understanding and edit if necessary.
4
118
How do I Teach it?
  • Model summarization.

Provide guided practice.
Provide supported, independent practice. Provide
immediate feedback to students.
Provide examples and nonexamples.
119
What Does Summarization With Graphic Organizers
Look Like?
  • Materials
  • Handout 9, Tornadoesone per participant
  • Handout 11, Graphic Organizer Main Idea and
    Summarization (for Tornadoes)one per
    participant
  • Handout 12, Graphic Organizer Main Idea and
    Summarization (blank)one per participant

120
Summarization Steps for Students
Write a topic sentence using the big idea.

1
Include main ideas in an order that makes sense.
2
Delete information that is redundant or trivial.
3
Reread for understanding and edit if necessary.
4
121
Highlighted StudyKlingner Vaughn (1996)
  • Participants
  • 26 students (some LD),
  • grades 7 and 8

Reciprocal Teaching 15 days
122
Reciprocal TeachingStrategies Taught
  • Predict what a passage is about.
  • Brainstorm what you know about the topic.
  • Clarify words and phrases.
  • Highlight the main idea of a paragraph.
  • Summarize the main idea.
  • Identify important details of a passage.
  • Ask and answer questions.

123
Reciprocal TeachingStrategies Taught (continued)
Participants 26 students (some LD), grades 7 and 8
Reciprocal Teaching 15 days
Cross-Age Tutoring n 13
Cooperative Groups n 13
124
Reciprocal TeachingStrategies Taught (continued)
Cross-Age Tutoring
Cooperative Learning
Participants implemented the comprehension
strategies in cooperative learning groups (35
students) for 12 days.
Participants provided tutoring to sixth-grade
students on comprehension strategies.
For both interventions, the researcher Circulated
around the room Monitored behavior
and Provided assistance, as needed.
125
Findings
  • Initial reading ability and oral language
    proficiency seemed related to gains in
    comprehension.
  • A greater range of students benefited from
    strategy instruction than would have been
    predicted.
  • Students in both groups continued to show
    improvement in comprehension when provided
    minimal adult support.

126
Implications for the Classroom
  • Implementing comprehension strategy practice
    within peer groups frees up the teacher for
    monitoring student performance.
  • Teachers may want to consider comprehension
    instruction for a wide range of students,
    including those with very low reading levels.

127
Components of Comprehension Strategy Instruction
Activate Prior Knowledge
Answer/Generate Questions
Multicomponent Instruction
Monitor Comprehension
Summarize Using Graphic Organizers
(Adapted from Simmons, Rupley, Vaughn, Edmonds,
2006)
128
Multicomponent Comprehension Strategies are
  • The combination of several reading comprehension
    strategies in order to gain meaning from text.
  • Why is it important?
  • The combination of strategies increases the level
    of comprehension.
  • It leads to eventual automaticity.

129
How do I Teach it?
After teaching two or more comprehension
strategies, give students opportunity to
practice and apply knowledge.
Model using the strategies together.
Provide guided practice.
Provide supported, independent practice. Provide
immediate feedback to students. Teach students to
self-regulate their use of strategies.
130
Revisit Your Anticipation Chart
131
Confirm/Disconfirm Predictions
Confirmed? ___ Yes ___ No
132
Conclusions About Comprehension Instruction
  • TEACH STRATEGIES
  • Do not just ask comprehension questions.
  • Eventually, show students how to combine these
    strategies and use them concurrently.

133
What is Motivation?
  • How can I incorporate motivation into my lessons
    for my students with reading disabilities and
    difficulties?

134
Research on Motivation
  • Motivation
  • Makes reading enjoyable
  • Increases strategy use and
  • Supports comprehension.

(Guthrie Wigfield, 2000)
135
Motivation
(Boardman et al., 2008)
136
Instructional Practices Associated With Improved
Motivation
  • Four critical instructional practices can improve
  • students motivation.
  • Provide content goals for reading.
  • Support student autonomy.
  • Provide interesting texts.
  • Increase collaboration during reading.

(Guthrie Humenick, 2004)
137
Instructional Practice 1 Content Goals
A content goal is a question or purpose for
reading. It emphasizes the importance of and
increases interest in learning from what we read.
A teacher could
  • Facilitate the use of relevant background
    knowledge.
  • Arrange hands-on experiences.
  • Make content goals interesting and relevant.
  • Model behaviors of a curious reader.
  • Involve students in creating and tracking content
    goals.
  • Provide feedback on progress of meeting goals.

(Guthrie Humenick, 2004)
138
Instructional Practice 2 Support Student
Autonomy
Student autonomy refers to students making
instructional decisions for themselves.
  • Provide opportunities for students to select
    which text they read.
  • Allow students to choose aspects of the task in
    which they are to engage.
  • Provide opportunities for students to either
    select partners or groups, or to work alone.

(Guthrie Humenick, 2004)
139
Instructional Practice 3 Use Interesting Texts
Students enjoy reading texts they find
interesting and choose to continue reading these
texts during free time. Here are several
guidelines for selecting appropriate and
interesting material
  • Choose texts for which students possess
    background knowledge.
  • Choose texts that are visually pleasing and
    appear readable.
  • Choose texts that are relevant to students
    interests.
  • Provide stimulating tasks.

(Guthrie Humenick, 2004)
140
Instructional Practice 4 Increase
Collaboration During Reading
Adolescents are motivated by working
together. Collaboration increases the number of
opportunities struggling readers have to respond.
  • Allow students to collaborate by reading
    together, sharing information, and presenting
    their knowledge.
  • Teach collaborative group work skills.
  • Use collaboration to foster a sense of belonging
    to the classroom community (Anderman, 1999).

(Guthrie Humenick, 2004)
141
Motivation Practical Ideas
Provide weekly/monthly rewards.
Allow students to choose incentives.
Provide student choice.
Schedule student conferences.
Allow students to graph their progress.
Allow students to participate in goal setting or
lesson planning.
142
Effective Reading Instruction at the Secondary
Level Putting it all Together
  • A Review of Instructional Recommendations
  • Teach word study skills to adolescent readers who
    struggle at the word level. There are a variety
    of methods to teach this information, but most
    involve teaching students to decode words by
    recognizing syllable types or by analyzing parts
    of words.
  • Use data to decide how much fluency intervention
    students should receive and whether it should be
    paired with instruction in decoding, vocabulary,
    and/or comprehension-enhancing practices.
  • Teach the meanings of words to students to
    enhance their vocabulary. Your instructional
    goals will guide the words and instructional
    approach you select.
  • Teach students specific comprehension strategies
    that they can use to enhance their comprehension.
    Once individual strategies are taught, combine
    two or more into a single lesson.
  • Use instructional practices that promote student
    motivation.

143
Considerations for Implementation
  • Adjust the focus and intensity of interventions
    according to individual student needs.
  • Assess and monitor the progress of students.
  • Provide targeted support in well-planned,
    small-group sessions over a long period of time.

144
Considerations for Implementation (continued)
  • Provide professional development and support to
    teachers in general education classrooms to
    provide classwide interventions.

145
Considerations for Implementation (continued)
Create ways for general education teachers and
specialists to collaborate and coordinate on
  • Instructional techniques and content.
  • Programwide decisions.
  • Implementation of reading instruction.

146
Continue to Learn!
  • Use Center on Instruction resources to build your
    background knowledge of reading instruction for
    older struggling readers.
  • Academic Literacy Instruction for Adolescents A
    Guidance Document from the Center on Instruction
  • Adolescent Literacy Resources An Annotated
    Bibliography
  • Interventions for Adolescent Struggling Readers
    A Meta-analysis With Implications for Practice
  • Effective Instruction for Adolescent Struggling
    Readers A Practice Brief

Continue to seek out other sources of support and
knowledge. Visit www.centeroninstruction.org.
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