The Dual Revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries

1
The Dual Revolutions of the 18th and 19th
centuries

• The French and Industrial Revolutions and their
  aftermath

2
The Industrial Revolution

• Economic, Political and Social Change

3
Definition

• The process of change from an agrarian and
  handicraft based economy to one dominated by
  industry and machine manufacture
• Arnold Toynbee first used the term to describe
  developments in England from 1760 to 1840.

4
Mechanization

• During the first half of the 19th century, the
  European manufacturing process shifted from
  small-scale production by hand at home to
  large-scale production by machine in a factory
  setting.

5
Why England?

1. Britannia rules the waves
2. Profitable agricultureEnclosure movement
3. Coal and iron in Lancashire and Yorkshire
4. Money to risk on innovation from profits of the
   colonial empire and slavery
5. The colonies supply raw materials (cotton, sugar)
   and also serve as a market for the products of
   the factories (English cotton cloth destroys the
   domestic textile industry in India.

6
Characteristics of the I.R.

• Starts in English cotton textile industry.
• New machines increase production with less human
  energy.
• The spinning jenny, power loom, etc. are first
  powered by water power, then b y the steam
  engine, using coal as a fuel.
• New organization of work, the FACTORY SYSTEM,
  based on the division of labor and the
  specialization of function.
• Improvements in transportationcanals, roads,
  steam locomotive and steamship.
• Application of applied science to industry
  engineering, chemistry

7
New Inventions of the Industrial Revolution
8
John Kays Flying Shuttle-1730s mechanization
of weaving
9
1765 James Hargreaves the Spinning Jenny

• First invention to improve on the spinning wheel
• Could be located in homes of spinners (spinsters)
• Vital to the domestic or putting out system of
  cloth production

10
Richard ArkwrightPioneer of the Factory System
The Water Frame 1769
11
1785 Edmund Cartwright - The Power Loom
12
1765 James Watt the Steam Engine

• Most important invention of the I.R.
• Coal powered-heats water to create steam that
  forces piston to turn a wheel.
• 1,000 engines in use by 1800
• Applied to transportation technology

13
Steam Ship
14
An Early Steam Locomotive
15
Factory Production

• Concentrates production in oneplace materials,
  machines, labor.
• Located near sources of power rather than labor
  or markets.
• Requires a lot of capital investmentfactory,
  machines, etc. morethan skilled labor.
• Only 10 of English industry in 1850.

16
The Factory System

• Rigid schedule.
• 12-14 hour day, six days a week.
• Dangerous conditions.
• Mind-numbing monotony.

17
At the Expense of Workers

• The shift meant high quality products at
  competitive prices, but often at the expense of
  workers. For example, the raw wool and cotton
  that fed the British textile mills came from
• Lands converted from farming to sheep raising,
  leaving farm workers without jobs
• The southern plantations of the United States,
  which were dependent upon slave labor

18
Textile FactoryWorkers in England
1813 2400 looms 150, 000 workers
1833 85, 000 looms 200, 000 workers
1850 224, 000 looms gt1 million workers
19
CHILD LABOR IN MINES AND FACTORIES

• In 1788, two thirds of the workers in English
  textile mills were children.
• They worked up to 14 hours a day in dangerous
  and unsanitary conditions.
• Poor families could not survive if their children
  were not employed.
• Factory Act of 1833 limits hours of work and
  forbids employment under the age of nine.
• Ages 11-18 12 hours a day
• Ages 9-11 8 hours a day

20
Child Labor in factories and Mines
21
Urban Growth

• Those who could no longer make a living on the
  land migrated from the countryside to the cities
  to seek work in the factories.

22
Population Growth

• At the same time, the population of Europe
  continued to grow.

23
The Plight of the Cities

• The sheer number of human beings put pressure on
  city resources
• Housing, water, sewers, food supplies, and
  lighting were completely inadequate.

• Slums grew and disease, especially cholera,
  ravaged the population.
• Crime increased and became a way of life for
  those who could make a living in no other way.

24
Conditions in the Countryside

• The only successful farmers were those with large
  landholdings who could afford agricultural
  innovations.
• Most peasants
• Didnt have enough land to support themselves
• Were devastated by poor harvests (e.g., the Irish
  Potato Famine of 1845-47)
• Were forced to move to the cities to find work in
  the factories.

25
The Role of the Railroads

• The railroads, built during the 1830s and 1840s
• Enabled people to leave the place of their birth
  and migrate easily to the cities.
• Allowed cheaper and more rapid transport of raw
  materials and finished products.
• Created an increased demand for iron and steel
  and a skilled labor force.

26
The Labor Force

• No single description could include all of these
  19th century workers
• Factory workers
• Urban artisans
• Domestic system craftsmen
• Household servants
• Miners
• Countryside peddlers
• Farm workers
• Railroad workers
• Variations in duties, income, and working
  conditions made it difficult for them to unite.

27
The Condition of Labor

• All working people, however, faced possible
  unemployment, with little or no provision for
  security.
• In addition, they were subject to various kinds
  of discipline
• The closing of factory gates to late workers
• Fines for tardiness
• Dismissal for drunkenness
• Public censure for poor quality workmanship
• Beatings for non-submissiveness

28
Proletarianization

• Factory workers lose control of the means of
  production
• Factory owners provide the financial capital to
  construct factory and purchase machines and raw
  materials
• Factory workers can only exchange their labor for
  wages

29
Upstairs/Downstairs Life
30
Industrial Staffordshire
31
Worker Resistance

• The Luddites1811-1816 Craftsman destroy the new
  textile machines
• 1819 Peterloo massacre Troops fire on workers
  demonstrating in Manchester
• The Chartist Movement 3 million sign the
  Peoples Charter, which called for universal
  manhood suffrage and the secret ballot
• Trade unions were illegal

32
Family Structures Changed

• With the decline of the domestic system and the
  rise of the factory system, family life changed.
• At first, the entire family, including the
  children, worked in the factory, just as they had
  at home.
• Later, family life became fragmented (the father
  worked in the factory, the mother handled
  domestic chores, the children went to school).

33
Family as a Unit of Consumption

• In short, the European family changed from being
  a unit of production and consumption to being a
  unit of consumption alone.

34
Gender-Determined Roles

• That transformation prepared the way for
  gender-determined roles.
• Women came to be associated with domestic duties,
  such as housekeeping, food preparation, child
  rearing and nurturing, and household management.
• The man came to be associated almost exclusively
  with breadwinning.

35
Political and social changes

• Decline in the importance of the aristocracy.
• Rise in power of the Bourgeoisie
• Liberalism becomes the dominant ideology of the
  middle classes
• Working class organizes in labor unions and
  socialist parties based on the ideas of Karl Marx
  (1848 The Communist Manifesto)

36
Karl Marx and Friedrich EngelsThe Communist
Manifesto 1848

• History has a directionit moves along through
  necessary stages
• History is moved along by changes in the economic
  life of each societythe mode of production and
  exchange
• History is moved along by class strugglea
  struggle between dominant and the subordinate
  social classes
• In the industrial era, the struggle is between
  the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of
  production) and the proletariat (workers who only
  own their own labor)
• The Communist Revolution will destroy capitalism
  and the class system.

37
The French Revolution
38
The Revolutionary Ideas

• -Ideological Foundation for Political Liberalism
  and Democracy

39
Liberty

• The notion of individual human rights
• A new type of government in which the people are
  sovereign
• The importance of a representative assembly
• The importance of a written constitution
• The notion of self-determination
• Freedom to accumulate property

40
Equality

• Equality of rights and civil liberties
• Equality before the law
• No special privileges for the rich
• Equality of opportunity
• Careers Open to Talent
• Inherent tension between liberty and equality

41
The Atlantic Revolution

• French Revolution was a part of a whole series of
  revolutions which took place during the late 18th
  century
• --Political agitation in England, Ireland,
  Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Germany,
  Hungary, Poland and the North and South American
  colonies
• One big movement of revolutionary agitation that
  continues well into the 19th c.

42
The American Revolution

• 1760sBritish Parliament taxes the 13 North
  American colonies to pay for the Seven Years war
  with France
• 1774 Continental Congress No taxation without
  representation
• 1775 Battles at Lexi9ngton and Concord
• July 4, 1776 Declaration of Independence All
  Men are Created Equal. Influenced by ideas of
  John Locke and the Enlightenment.
• American victory made possible by military
  support from France and the Netherlands.
• 1783 Peace of Paris
• The significance of the American constitution
  (1787)
• The influence of the American Revolution on
  revolutions throughout the world

43
The Declaration of Independence July 4, 1776

• When in the Course of human events it becomes
  necessary for one people to dissolve the
  political bands which have connected them with
  another and to assume among the powers of the
  earth, the separate and equal station to which
  the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle
  them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind
  requires that they should declare the causes
  which impel them to the separation.
• We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all
  men are created equal, that they are endowed by
  their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,
  that among these are Life, Liberty and the
  pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these
  rights, Governments are instituted among Men,
  deriving their just powers from the consent of
  the governed, That whenever any Form of
  Government becomes destructive of these ends, it
  is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish
  it, and to institute new Government, laying its
  foundation on such principles and organizing its
  powers in such form, as to them shall seem most
  likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
  Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments
  long established should not be changed for light
  and transient causes and accordingly all
  experience hath shewn that mankind are more
  disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable
  than to right themselves by abolishing the forms
  to which they are accustomed. But when a long
  train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing
  invariably the same Object evinces a design to
  reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their
  right, it is their duty, to throw off such
  Government, and to provide new Guards for their
  future security. Such has been the patient
  sufferance of these Colonies and such is now the
  necessity which constrains them to alter their
  former Systems of Government. The history of the
  present King of Great Britain is a history of
  repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in
  direct object the establishment of an absolute
  Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let
  Facts be submitted to a candid world.

44
The Bill of Rights- first 10 amendments to the
U.S. Constitution, ratified on December 15, 1791

• Amendment I Congress shall make no law
  respecting an establishment of religion, or
  prohibiting the free exercise thereof or
  abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press
  or the right of the people peaceably to assemble,
  and to petition the government for a redress of
  grievances.
• Amendment II A well regulated militia, being
  necessary to the security of a free state, the
  right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall
  not be infringed.
• Amendment III No soldier shall, in time of peace
  be quartered in any house, without the consent of
  the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to
  be prescribed by law.
• Amendment IV The right of the people to be
  secure in their persons, houses, papers, and
  effects, against unreasonable searches and
  seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants
  shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported
  by oath or affirmation, and particularly
  describing the place to be searched, and the
  persons or things to be seized.
• Amendment V No person shall be held to answer
  for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime,
  unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand
  jury, except in cases arising in the land or
  naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual
  service in time of war or public danger nor
  shall any person be subject for the same offense
  to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb nor
  shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a
  witness against himself, nor be deprived of life,
  liberty, or property, without due process of law
  nor shall private property be taken for public
  use, without just compensation.
• Amendment VI In all criminal prosecutions, the
  accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and
  public trial, by an impartial jury of the state
  and district wherein the crime shall have been
  committed, which district shall have been
  previously ascertained by law, and to be informed
  of the nature and cause of the accusation to be
  confronted with the witnesses against him to
  have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses
  in his favor, and to have the assistance of
  counsel for his defense.
• Amendment VII In suits at common law, where the
  value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars,
  the right of trial by jury shall be preserved,
  and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise
  reexamined in any court of the United States,
  than according to the rules of the common law.
• Amendment VIII Excessive bail shall not be
  required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel
  and unusual punishments inflicted.
• Amendment IX The enumeration in the
  Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be
  construed to deny or disparage others retained by
  the people.
• Amendment X The powers not delegated to the
  United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited
  by it to the states, are reserved to the states
  respectively, or to the people.

45
Revolutions in Mexico and Central and South
America

• Led by wealthy Creole class
• Goal Independence from Spanish and Portuguese
  rule
• Simon Bolivar, the father of Latin American
  independence led revolts in Columbia, Venezuela,
  Ecuador and Peru
• Bolivar cooperated with Jose de San Martin and
  Bernardo OHiggins in successful revolts in
  Argentina and Chile
• Bolivars goal a United Sates of South America
• By 1825 Spanish rule ended in South America
• 1822 Independence of Brazil under Emperor Pedro I
• 1821 End of Spanish rule in Mexico and Central
  America
• Continued dominance of the white Creole elites

46
Background of Haitian Revolution

• Treaty of Ryswick (1697) Spain cedes Western
  third of Hispaniola to France
• From 1697 to 1789, Saint Domingue becomes the
  richest colony in the world based on slave
  produced sugar, coffee indigo dye, cotton,
  tobacco and exotic spices
• The plantation system on S.D. was the most brutal
  the world had ever seen.

47
1791 The structure of Saint Domingue society

• 20,000 whites (Planters and Petit Blancs)
• 50,000 free people of color (affranchis)
• 500,000 African slaves (most born in Africa)
• 10,000 to 20,000 Maroons (runaway slaves) living
  in the mountains.

48
Impact of American and French Revolutions on
Saint Domingue

• 500 gens de couleur (affranchis) serve in French
  army and participate in the American Revolution.
  Bring revolutionary ideas back to S.D.
• The planters want an independent S.D. that they
  can control without interference from Paris.
• The petit blancs are the only group loyal to
  France hostile to the free persons of color and
  want to retain slavery.
• The affranchis want a free Saint Dominguewith
  slavery- and equal rights with the whites.
• The slaves want only one thingfreedom!

49
The Haitian Revolution Begins

• August 21, 1791 revolt of the slaves on the
  northern plain.
• More than a thousand planters and their families
  killed
• Whites and affranchis unite to put down the
  rebellion

50
Francois-DominiqueToussaint (LOuverture)
1744-1803

• Former slave, 47 years old, joins rebels as a
  medical officer
• Rises to become a general and the leader of the
  revolution
• To get rid of French he allies with the English
  and Spanish

51
Toussaint LOuverture

• In 1793, the National Assembly in France
  abolishes slavery.
• Sonthanax, the French representative in S.D.
  issues proclamation ending slavery.
• In 1794, Toussaint joins the French side as . a
  brigadier general
• He defeats the Spanish and English and conquers
  the whole island of Hispaniola by 1801
• July 26, 1801 Toussaints Constitution

52
Napoleon Bonaparte

• Napoleon wants to take power back from the
  gilded African
• 1802 General Laclerc lands at Cap Francois
• Toussaint betrayed, arrested and sent to
  Francedies in prison in April 1803.

53
The Republic of Haiti

• Henri Christophe and Jean Jacques Dessalines
  continue war.
• French surrender in November 1803.
• Napoleon, disgusted at the cost of colonial wars,
  sells Louisiana to the U.S.
• January 1, 1804 Dessalines proclaims the
  independence of Haiti

54
The problems of independence

• A devastated economy Former slaves refuse to
  return to plantation labor. Do not produce for
  export.
• International boycott against trade with Haiti
• Haitian independence recognized by France in
  1825 England in 1833 the United States in
  1862!!!
• The affranchis form a Haitian ruling class.
• Between 1843 -1915, a succession of 20 rulers 16
  overthrown by revolution or assassination.
• United States military occupation of Haiti
  (1915-1934)

55
The French Revolution

• More fundamental and profound consequences than
  the American Revolution and the revolutions in
  Latin America
• France most powerful and populous state in
  Europe
• Massive social revolution
• Worldwide impact
• Becomes model for future revolutions

56
How Should We Look at the French Revolution?

• Series of revolutions which became more radical
  as leadership cascaded down through French
  society.

57
Background to the French Revolution

• The ideas of the Enlightenment Locke, Voltaire,
  Diderot, Montesquieu, Rousseau
• Primary idea is popular sovereignty. Government
  should be based on the will of the people.
• The burdens on the French peasantry tithes to
  the church taxes to the State and to wealthy
  landlords the corveeunpaid labor services the
  salt monopoly
• Grievances of the bourgeoisie
• Grievances of the urban poor

58
The Events of the French Revolution

• Watch for the different revolutions within the
  Revolution!

59
The OriginsThe financial crisis of Louis XVIs
government

• Began as a revolt of the aristocracy
• Attempt to capitalize on the financial woes of
  the monarchy
• Only solution tax reform and a direct tax on
  all property
• Aristocracy refused and forces the issue

60
The Estates-General

• An old feudal assembly that had not met since
  1614
• Three Estates Clergy, Nobility, All Others
• 1788 the cahiers des doleances
• The miscalculation and lack of social awareness
  of the aristocracy

61
The Third Estate

• Who were they?
• Third Estate was dominated by the middle class
• Blending of aristocratic and bourgeois classes by
  1789
• Middle class Big Winners
• Revolutionary goals of the middle class

62
An Agenda of Classical Liberalism

• Representative government did not mean democracy
  or mob rule
• Estates-General became the National Assembly in
  June of 1789 with the power to frame a
  constitution
• --Tennis Court Oath

63
Revolutionaries in the Streets

• Who were they?
• Sans-culottes (without knee britches)
• Picked up the ideas and slogans of the Revolution
  from the more educated leadership of lawyers and
  journalists

64
What were the Motivations of these
Revolutionaries?

• Poverty and Hunger
• Low wages and fear of unemployment
• Heightened expectations and the exposure to a
  political perspective
• -- Cahiers
• Strong dislike for and distrust of the wealthy
• The role of conspiracy

65
The Storming the Bastille July 14, 1789

• Reasons for the attack on the Bastille on the
  morning of July 14
• The stubbornness of the governor of the fortress
• Celebrations on the night of July 14th
• Sparks tremendous popular revolution all over
  France

66
The Great Fear

• Independent revolutionary agitation in the
  countryside
• Rumors of Royalist troops becoming wandering
  vandals
• Fear breeds fear and peasants start marching
• Within 3 weeks of July 14, the countryside of
  France had been completely changed
• Abolition of the Nobility

67
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
August 26, 1789

• The representatives of the French people,
  organized as a National Assembly, believing that
  the ignorance, neglect, or contempt of the rights
  of man are the sole cause of public calamities
  and of the corruption of governments, have
  determined to set forth in a solemn declaration
  the natural, unalienable, and sacred rights of
  man, in order that this declaration, being
  constantly before all the members of the Social
  body, shall remind them continually of their
  rights and duties in order that the acts of the
  legislative power, as well as those of the
  executive power, may be compared at any moment
  with the objects and purposes of all political
  institutions and may thus be more respected, and,
  lastly, in order that the grievances of the
  citizens, based hereafter upon simple and
  incontestable principles, shall tend to the
  maintenance of the constitution and redound to
  the happiness of all. Therefore the National
  Assembly recognizes and proclaims, in the
  presence and under the auspices of the Supreme
  Being, the following rights of man and of the
  citizenArticles1.  Men are born and remain free
  and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be
  founded only upon the general good.2.  The aim of
  all political association is the preservation of
  the natural and imprescriptible rights of man.
  These rights are liberty, property, security, and
  resistance to oppression.3.  The principle of all
  sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No
  body nor individual may exercise any authority
  which does not proceed directly from the
  nation.4.  Liberty consists in the freedom to do
  everything which injures no one else hence the
  exercise of the natural rights of each man has no
  limits except those which assure to the other
  members of the society the enjoyment of the same
  rights. These limits can only be determined by
  law.5.  Law can only prohibit such actions as are
  hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented
  which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be
  forced to do anything not provided for by law.6. 
  Law is the expression of the general will. Every
  citizen has a right to participate personally, or
  through his representative, in its foundation. It
  must be the same for all, whether it protects or
  punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes
  of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities
  and to all public positions and occupations,
  according to their abilities, and without
  distinction except that of their virtues and
  talents.7.  No person shall be accused, arrested,
  or imprisoned except in the cases and according
  to the forms prescribed by law. Any one
  soliciting, transmitting, executing, or causing
  to be executed, any arbitrary order, shall be
  punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in
  virtue of the law shall submit without delay, as
  resistance constitutes an offense.8.  The law
  shall provide for such punishments only as are
  strictly and obviously necessary, and no one
  shall suffer punishment except it be legally
  inflicted in virtue of a law passed and
  promulgated before the commission of the
  offense.9.  As all persons are held innocent
  until they shall have been declared guilty, if
  arrest shall be deemed indispensable, all
  harshness not essential to the securing of the
  prisoner's person shall be severely repressed by
  law.10.  No one shall be disquieted on account of
  his opinions, including his religious views,
  provided their manifestation does not disturb the
  public order established by law.11.  The free
  communication of ideas and opinions is one of the
  most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen
  may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with
  freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses
  of this freedom as shall be defined by law.12. 
  The security of the rights of man and of the
  citizen requires public military forces. These
  forces are, therefore, established for the good
  of all and not for the personal advantage of
  those to whom they shall be intrusted.13.  A
  common contribution is essential for the
  maintenance of the public forces and for the cost
  of administration. This should be equitably
  distributed among all the citizens in proportion
  to their means.14.  All the citizens have a right
  to decide, either personally or by their
  representatives, as to the necessity of the
  public contribution to grant this freely to
  know to what uses it is put and to fix the
  proportion, the mode of assessment and of
  collection and the duration of the taxes.15. 
  Society has the right to require of every public
  agent an account of his administration.16.  A
  society in which the observance of the law is not
  assured, nor the separation of powers defined,
  has no constitution at all.17.  Since property is
  an inviolable and sacred right, no one shall be
  deprived thereof except where public necessity,
  legally determined, shall clearly demand it, and
  then only on condition that the owner shall have
  been previously and equitably indemnified.

68
Women in the Age of Revolution

• Olympe de Gouges
• 1791 Declaration of the Rights of Women and the
  Female Citizen
• Mary Wollstonecraft
• 1792 A Vindication of the Rights of Women

• Olympe de Gouges
• 1791 Declaration of the Rights of Women and the
  Female Citizen
• Mary Wollstonecraft
• 1792 A Vindication of the Rights e.doc

69
Women take the Lead!

• Mounting unemployment and hunger in Paris in the
  fall of 1789
• October Days The march to Versailles
• -- The point is that we want bread!
• The Royal Family returns to Paris on October 6,
  1789

70
The Consolidation of the Liberal Revolution

• Events from October, 1789 through September, 1791
• Abolition of the French nobility as a legal order
• Constitutional Monarchy established
• Economic centralization
• Nationalization of the Church
• --Stage set for subsequent civil war

71
Popular Political Mobilization

• Revolutionary Talk
• --More than 500 new newspapers
• --Oath of Loyalty
• -- Liberte, Equalite, Fraternite!
• Revolutionary Symbols
• Revolutionary Clubs
• --The Jacobins
• Revolutionary Leaders

72
Growing Radicalism

• Reasons
• --Snowball Effect
• --Unsatisfied Expectations
• --Outbreak of War
• Results
• --Increasing Violence
• --Change in Political Leadership

73
Robespierres Reign of Terror

• The Committee of Public Safety
• The Concept of Total War
• Maximum price ceilings on certain goods
• Nationalization of Small Workshops

74
The Reign of Terror (cont)

• Execution of 40,000 Enemies of the Nation
• Stress on radical definition of equality
• Wanted a legal maximum on personal wealth
• Wanted a regulation of commercial profits
• End of Robespierres dictatorship on July 28, 1794

75
The Directory and Napoleon Bonaparte

• The Directory (1794-1799)
• Napoleons Rise to Power
• The Napoleonic Code
• Establishment of the Bank of France
• Reconciliation with the Catholic Church
• --Concordat of 1801
• Heavy Censorship
• Napoleons Art of War
• The Napoleonic Code

76
Legacies of the French Revolution

• A revolutionary model
• A mass political consciousness
• Inspires nationalist movementsunification of
  Italy (1867) and Germany (1871
• Conflict within the Liberal Tradition
  Libertarianism vs. Egalitarianism