A Comparison of Ancient Civilizations

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A Comparison ofAncient Civilizations

• Egypt, Greece, Rome

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GeographicalInfluences
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EGYPT
The NILE RIVER , the longest river in the world
(6,650 kilometers or 4,132 miles), flows north
from the heart of Africa to the Mediterranean
Sea. Its flood plain was a magnet for life --
human, plant and animal. Humans were drawn there
because they could grow crops and settle into
permanent villages.
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Bounded on the south, east and west by an
impenetrable desert, and on the north by the sea,
ANCIENT EGYPT was protected from outside
influences, which allowed it to evolve in its own
unique way.
EGYPT
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EGYPT
For centuries, THE NILE RIVER FLOODED THE VALLEY,
enriching the land with a thick layer of alluvial
soil. Flooding occurred from July to September as
the result of tropical rains. The river attained
its highest level in October, then began to
recede to its lowest point sometime between April
and June.
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EGYPT
TRANSPORTATION The Nile River was the highway
that joined the country together. Up until the
nineteenth century, travel by land was virtually
unknown.
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GREECE
Located in southeastern Europe, Greece is defined
by a series of mountains and surrounded on all
sides except the north by water.
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GREECE
Ancient Greek View of the World
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GREECE
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The Mediterranean Sea moderates Greece's climate,
cooling the air in summer and providing warmth in
the winter months. Summers are generally hot and
dry. Winters are moderate and rainy in coastal
regions and cold and snowy in mountainous areas.
GREECE
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GREECE

• Numerous MOUNTAIN RANGES, which crisscross the
  peninsula, hampered internal communications and
  led to the development of independent
  city-states.
• Numerous ISLANDS and the indented coastlines of
  the Greek peninsula and of Asia Minor stimulated
  a seagoing trade.
• The ROCKY SOIL and limited natural resources
  encouraged the Greeks to establish colonies
  abroad.

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• Modern scholars believe that in the 8th century
  B.C., the inhabitants of some small Latin
  settlements on hills in the Tiber valley united
  and established a common meeting place, the
  FORUM, around which the city of Rome grew.

ROME
FORUM
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Social and PoliticalStructure
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Ancient Egypt achieved stability through the
co-operation of all levels of the population.

• The PHAROAH was at the top of the social
  hierarchy.

EGYPT

• Next to him, the most powerful officers were the
  VIZIERS, the executive heads of the bureaucracy.

• Under them were the HIGH PRIESTS, followed by
  ROYAL OVERSEERS (administrators) who ensured that
  the 42 DISTRICT GOVERNORS carried out the
  pharaoh's orders.

• At the bottom of the hierarchy were the SCRIBES,
  ARTISANS, FARMERS, and LABORERS.

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EGYPT
To reinforce their image as powerful divine
rulers, the PHARAOHS represented themselves in
writings and sculptured reliefs on temple walls.
They often DEPICTED THEMSELVES AS WARRIORS who
single-handedly killed scores of enemies and
slaughtered a whole pride of lions.
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GREECE
The POLIS (city-state) consisted of a city and
its surrounding plains and valleys. The nucleus
of the polis was the elevated, fortified site
called the ACROPOLIS where people could take
refuge from attack. With the revival of commerce,
a TRADING CENTER developed below the acropolis.
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Four major TYPES OF GOVERNMENT evolved in ancient
Greece
GREECE

• Monarchy (rule of a king) limited by an
  aristocratic council and a popular assembly.
• Oligarchy (rule of the few) arising when the
  aristocratic council ousted the king and
  abolished the assembly.
• Tyranny (rule by one who ruled without legal
  authority) riding to power on the discontent of
  the lower classes.
• Democracy (rule of the people), the outstanding
  political achievement of the Greeks.

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• ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY
• DIRECT PARTICIPATION was the key to Athenian
  DEMOCRACY. In the Assembly, every male citizen
  was not only entitled to attend as often as he
  pleased but also had the right to DEBATE, offer
  AMENDMENTS, and vote on PROPOSALS. Every man had
  a say in whether to declare WAR or stay in PEACE.
  Basically any thing that required a government
  decision, all male citizens were allowed to
  participate in.

GREECE
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• Although DEMOCRACY was an outstanding
  achievement, it is important to keep in mind that
  the majority of the inhabitants of Athens were
  not recognized citizens.
• WOMEN, SLAVES, and RESIDENT ALIENS were DENIED
  CITIZENSHIP. These groups had no standing in the
  law courts. (If a woman sought the protection of
  the law, she had to ask a citizen to plead for
  her in court.)

GREECE
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ROME

• THE ROMAN MONARCHY to 509 B.C.
• According to tradition, early Rome was ruled
  by KINGS elected by the people.
• The king's executive power was conferred by a
  POPULAR ASSEMBLY made up of all arms-bearing
  citizens.
• The king turned for advice to a council of
  nobles, called the SENATE.
• Each senator had lifelong tenure and the members
  of this group and their families constituted the
  PATRICIAN class.
• The other class of Romans, the PLEBEIANS
  (commoners) included small farmers, artisans, and
  many clients (dependents of patrician
  landowners). In return for a livelihood, the
  clients gave their patrician patrons political
  support in the ASSEMBLY

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ROME
ROMAN SENATE
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• EARLY REPUBLIC 509-133 B.C.
• In 509 B.C., according to tradition, the
  PATRICIANS expelled the last Etruscan king and
  established a REPUBLIC.
• The power to rule was transferred to two new
  officials called CONSULS.
• Elected annually from the patrician class, the
  consul exercised their power in the interests of
  that class.

ROME
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• PLEBEIAN STRUGGLE FOR EQUAL RIGHTS
• For more than two centuries following the
  establishment of the Republic, the plebeians
  struggled for political and social equality.
• Outright civil war was averted by the willingness
  of the patricians to compromise.
• Much of the plebeians success in this struggle
  was also due to their tactics of collective
  action and to their having organized a corporate
  group within the state.

ROME

• The unofficial body was known as the PLEBEIAN
  COUNCIL.
• It was presided over by plebeian officials called
  TRIBUNES, whose job was to safeguard the
  interests of the plebeians and to negotiate with
  the consuls and the Senate.

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ROME

• The advancement of the PLEBEIANS during the early
  Republic took two main lines the safeguarding of
  their FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS and the progressive
  enlargement of their share of POLITICAL POWER.

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• FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
• Because the consuls often interpreted Rome's
  unwritten customary law to suit PATRICIAN
  INTERESTS, the plebeians demanded that it be
  written down.
• As a result, about 450 B.C., the law was
  inscribed on twelve tablets of bronze and set up
  publicly in the Forum.
• The LAW OF THE TWELVE TABLETS was the first
  landmark in the long history of Roman law.

ROME
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• The plebeians in time acquired other fundamental
  rights and safeguards
• They secured the right to APPEAL A DEATH SENTENCE
  imposed by a consul and to be retried before the
  popular assembly.
• The tribunes gained a VETO POWER over any
  legislation or executive act that threatened the
  rights of the plebeians.
• MARRIAGE between patricians and plebeians,
  prohibited by the Law of the Twelve Tablets, was
  legalized.
• The enslavement of citizens for DEBT was
  abolished

ROME
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• POLITICAL POWER
• Little by little, the plebeian class acquired
  more power in the functioning of government.
• In 367 B.C., ONE CONSULSHIP was reserved for the
  plebeians.
• Before the end of the century, they were eligible
  to hold other important positions PRAETOR (in
  charge of the law courts), QUAESTOR (treasurer),
  CENSOR (supervisor of public morals and state
  contracts).

ROME

• Some plebeians succeeded in gaining entry to the
  SENATE.
• The long struggle for equality ended in 287 B.C.
  when the PLEBEIAN COUNCIL was recognized as a
  constitutional body, henceforth known as the
  TRIBAL ASSEMBLY, with the right to PASS LAWS that
  were binding on all citizens.
• The Roman Republic was now technically a
  democracy, although in actual practice a
  senatorial aristocracy of patricians and rich
  plebeians continued to control the state.

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• POLITICAL THEORY AND LEGAL PRINCIPLES
• Roman political thinkers contributed many
  governmental theories
• The SOCIAL CONTRACT theory (that government
  originated as a voluntary agreement among
  citizens).
• The idea of POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY (that all power
  ultimately resides with the people).
• The concept that LAW must be the basis for
  government.

ROME
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Economy
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EGYPT
The flooding of the Nile rendered the narrow
strip of land on either side of the river
extremely fertile. INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE was
practiced by the majority of the peasant
population. who played a vital role within the
country's STRICT HIERARHICAL SOCIETY. As the
flood waters receded, SOWING and PLOWING began,
using primitive wooden plows. In addition to
such GRAINS as barley and emmer (a coarse wheat),
a large variety of VEGETABLES were grown,
including onions, garlic, leeks, beans, lentils,
peas, radishes, cabbage, cucumbers, and lettuce.
There were also FRUITS such as dates, figs,
pomegranates, melons and grapes, The abundance
of flowers provided nectar for the bees to
produce HONEY, which the Egyptians processed.
FLAX was grown for making linen, and PAPYRUS was
harvested to be converted into paper, ropes,
mats, sandals and light skiffs.
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EGYPT
Reaping and scattering the seed
Breaking the ground with plow and hoe
Separating the grain from the chaff
Although the land was worked by the PEASANTS, it
was owned by the king, his officials and the
temples. Farmers had to meet GRAIN QUOTAS, which
were handed over to the owners as a form of
taxation. They were allowed to keep a portion of
the crops for their own benefit. If they did not
produce the quantity expected, however, they were
severely punished.
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In mid-September, farmers blocked canals to
retain the water for IRRIGATION. Still used
today, the SHADUF is a mechanical irrigation
device used to conduct water from the canals to
the fields. One person can operate it by
swinging the bucket of water from the canal to
the field
EGYPT
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EGYPT
LIVESTOCK was important to the Egyptian economy,
supplying meat, milk, hides, and dung for cooking
fuel. A variety of DOMESTICATED ANIMALS were
raised, including cattle, oxen, sheep, goats,
pigs, ducks and geese. Peasants probably enjoyed
meat on special occasions.. DRAFT ANIMALS such
as oxen increased agricultural productivity.
HERDSMEN and SHEPHERDS lived a semi-nomadic
life, pasturing their animals in the marshes of
the Nile.
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EGYPT
Barley and emmer, were used to make BEER and
BREAD, the main staples of the Egyptian diet.
Grains were harvested and stored in GRANARIES
until ready to be processed. The quantities
harvested each season far exceeded the needs of
the country, so much was exported to neighboring
countries, providing a rich source of INCOME for
the Egyptian treasury
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EGYPT
Grapes were processed into WINE for the noble
class, but beer was the favorite drink of the
common people. Food was served in POTTERY BOWLS,
but NO UTENSILS were used for eating.
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EGYPT
FISHING allowed the working class to add variety
to its diet. The poor substituted fish for meat,
which they could not afford. The Nile, the
marshes of the delta and the Mediterranean Sea
offered them a rich variety of species. FISHING
METHODS included the use of a hook and line,
harpoons, traps and nets. BIRDS, including geese
and ducks, were also HUNTED in the marshes and
papyrus thickets along the Nile. Small fishing
boats called SKIFFS were made from PAPYRUS REEDS,
which are naturally filled with air pockets,
making them particularly buoyant. Skiffs were
also used for hunting game in the Nile marshes.
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GREECE
The daily diet included CEREALS (like wheat and
barley), GRAPES, and OLIVES -- commonly called
the MEDITERRANEAN TRIAD.  The Greeks typically
made grapes into WINE and olives into OLIVE OIL,
so they would keep without refrigeration.  Grains
and cereals were commonly used for BREAD and
PORRIDGE.  Diets were supplemented with
VEGETABLES and HERBS from kitchen gardens as
well as BERRIES, and MUSHROOMS.  The poor usually
ate FISH, while oysters, sea urchins, octopus,
and eels were considered DELICACIES and only
eaten by the wealthy.
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GREECE
BREAD in ancient Greece was a very important part
of the daily diet.  At first all breads were
prepared in the embers of a fire.  Eventually the
Greeks developed a bread OVEN that is similar in
function to the ovens we use today.  Because they
required less wood or charcoal (which was
expensive), these ovens made bread AVAILABLE TO
ALMOST EVERYONE.  The most common type of bread
in Greece was called MAZA which was a flat bread
made from barley flour.  Most meals consisted of
maza and some sort of accompaniment to the bread
called OPSON. This might be vegetables, fish,
olives, onions, garlic, fruit, and on a rare
occasion, meat. 
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MEN did most of the hard, muscle power jobs such
as PLOWING AND REAPING.  The WOMEN SOWED SEED,
WEEDED THE FIELDS and TENDED THE HOUSEHOLD and
CHILDREN.  Women might also grow SMALL GARDENS
around the house with vegetables and beans. 
Women might also bring in extra income for the
farm with a CRAFT TRADE such as weaving that they
might sell at a market.
GREECE
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GREECE
Farmers had to give a SMALL PORTION of their
crops to the gods as a SACRIFICE and to the
city-state for TAXES.  This left the farmers with
just enough to feed their families.  The land
was divided very precisely.  Each household in a
polis was given a plot of land. This plot would
be handed down to the children.  If the farmer
could not pay his land taxes a WEALTHIER LAND
OWNER COULD TAKE IT and pay the debt for the
farmer.  Many aristocrats built their wealth 
this way. 
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• As a result of expansion, important social and
  economic problems faced Rome by the middle of the
  second century B.C. One of the most pressing
  problems was the DISAPPEARANCE OF THE SMALL
  LANDOWNER. Burdened by frequent military service,
  his farm buildings destroyed by war, and unable
  to compete with the cheap grain imported from the
  new Roman province of Sicily, the SMALL FARMER
  SOLD OUT and moved to Rome. Here he joined the
  unemployed, discontented PROLETARIAT.

ROME
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ROME

• Improved farming methods learned from the Greeks
  and Carthaginians encouraged RICH ARISTOCRATS to
  buy more and more land and, abandoning the
  cultivation of grain, introduce LARGE-SCALE
  SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTION of olive oil and wine, or
  of sheep and cattle. This trend was especially
  profitable because an abundance of cheap SLAVES
  from the conquered areas was available to work on
  the estates. These large slave plantations,
  called LATIFUNDIA, were now common in Italy,
  while small farms were the exception.

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ROME

• The land problem was further complicated by the
  government's earlier practice of LEASING part of
  the territory acquired in the conquest of the
  Italian peninsula to anyone willing to pay a
  percentage of the crop or animals raised on it.
  Only the patricians or wealthy plebeians could
  afford to lease large tracts of this PUBLIC LAND
  and in time they treated it as their own
  property. Plebeian protests had led to an attempt
  to limit the holdings of a single individual to
  320 acres, but the law was never enforced.

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Architecture andEngineering
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EGYPT
EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS THE RAMP THEORYOne theory
suggests that RAMPS were used to haul the STONE
BLOCKS on WOODEN SLEDS up the side of the
pyramids. The ramps were LUBRICATED WITH WATER to
reduce friction when hauling the blocks. As few
as 10 men were needed to drag a stone block up a
ramp. may have been several ramps on each side of
the pyramid at different levels, and a ramp may
have been coiled around the pyramid as it grew in
height. Once a stone block reached its desired
level, wooden rockers may have been used to
maneuver it into position.
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EGYPT
Ramp on pyramid
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EGYPT
Stone block on sled
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EGYPT
Pouring water to lubricate the ramp
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EGYPT
Rocking a block into position
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EGYPT
The pyramids were probably NOT BUILT BY SLAVES
because slave labor was not widely used in Egypt
at the time. PEASANT FARMERS, however, were
required to spend a number of weeks working on
construction projects. This provided the paid
labor needed to build these gigantic structures.
Since the fields were under water during the
summer, wages earned in building the gigantic
pyramids SUPPLEMENTED THE FAMILY'S INCOME.
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EGYPT
Pyramids did not stand alone they were part of a
FUNERARY COMPLEX. The complex includes a
PROCESSIONAL CAUSEWAY that links a FUNERARY
TEMPLE to the pyramid.
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GREECE
The Parthenon Today
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The Acropolis of Athens
Erechtheion
Erechtheum
Kings Shrine
Theater of Dionysius
Pinakotheke
Parthenon
GREECE
Stoa of Eumenes
Odeum of Herodes Atticus (Roman)
Sanctuary of Asclepius
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• In designing their bridges and aqueducts, the
  Romans placed a series of STONE ARCHES next to
  one another to provide mutual support.
• Fourteen AQUEDUCTS, stretching a total of 265
  miles, supplied some 50 gallons of water daily
  for each inhabitant of Rome.
• The practical nature of the Romans and their
  skill and initiative in engineering were
  demonstrated in the many DAMS, RESERVOIRS, and
  HARBORS they built.

ENGINEERING PRACTICES
ROME
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• The BARREL VAULT, basically a series of adjoining
  arches forming a structure resembling a tunnel,
  was a new method of enclosing space. In the
  barrel vault the supports of the arches became
  heavy masonry walls to bear the weight of the
  vaulted roof.
• The Romans next developed the CROSS VALUT by
  intersection two barrel vaults at right angles.

ROME
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• Another important advance in architecture was the
  Roman's success in constructing CONCRETE DOMES on
  a large scale. The weight of the dome was
  transferred directly to the walls and no other
  support was necessary. The largest of the dome
  structures was the PANTHEON (temple of all the
  gods).

ROME
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• The standard type of Roman public building was
  the BASCILICA, a colonnaded structure that became
  a model for early Christian churches. Rows of
  columns divided the interior into a central nave
  and side aisles, with the roof over the nave
  raised to admit light, creating a CLERESTORY (an
  upper portion of a wall containing windows for
  supplying natural light to a building.

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Religion
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EGYPT
RELIGION is the glue that binds local communities
together and transforms them into nations. It
creates common understandings and shared values
that are essential to the growth of a
civilization.
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Like all religions, that of ancient Egypt was
COMPLEX. It evolved over the centuries from one
that emphasized local deities into a national
religion with a smaller number of principal
deities. There was no single belief system, but
the Egyptians shared a common understanding about
the CREATION OF THE WORLD and the possibility of
REVERTING TO CHAOS if the destructive forces of
the universe were unleashed.
EGYPT
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PRIESTS worked at the temples, conducting the
daily rituals of clothing, feeding and putting to
bed the sculpted images that represented the
gods. In mortuary temples, priests conducted
similar ceremonies to nourish the KA
(soul-spirit) of a deceased pharaoh or noble.
The priests shaved their heads and body hair,
and washed their bodies twice daily as a ritual
act of purification. They wore gowns or kilts of
pure white linen.
EGYPT
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EGYPT
Entering a Temple
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EGYPT
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EGYPT
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EGYPT

• The ancient Egyptians believed in the
  RESURRECTION OF THE BODY and LIFE EVERLASTING.
  This belief was rooted in what they observed each
  day.
• The sun fell into the western horizon each
  evening and was reborn the next morning in the
  east.
• New life sprouted from grains planted in the
  earth, and the moon waxed and waned.
• As long as order was maintained, everything was
  highly dependable and life after death could be
  achieved. But there were certain conditions. For
  example, the body had to be preserved through
  MUMMIFICATION and given a properly furnished tomb
  with everything needed for life in the
  afterworld.

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Around 450 B.C., the Greek historian HERODOTUS
documented the art of MUMMIFICATION.
As much of the brain as it is possible is
extracted through the nostrils with an iron hook,
and what the hook cannot reach is dissolved with
drugs. Next, the flank is slit open . . . and the
entire contents of the abdomen removed. The
cavity is then thoroughly cleansed and washed out
. . . Then it is filled with pure crushed myrrh,
cassia, and all other aromatic substances, except
frankincense. The incision is sewn up, and then
the body is placed in natron, covered entirely
for 70 days, never longer. When this period . . .
is ended, the body is washed and then wrapped
from the head to the feet in linen which has been
cut into strips and smeared on the underside with
gum which is commonly used by the Egyptians in
the place of glue. -- Herodotus
EGYPT
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NATRON, a disinfectant and dehydration agent, was
the main ingredient used in the mummification
process. A compound of sodium carbonate and
sodium bicarbonate (salt and baking soda), natron
essentially dried out the corpse. The body was
filled with Nile mud, sawdust, lichen and cloth
scraps to make it more flexible. Small COOKING
ONIONS or linen pads were sometimes used to
replace the eyes. Beginning in the third
dynasty, the internal organs (lungs, stomach,
liver and intestines) were removed, washed with
palm wine and spices, and stored in four separate
CANOPIC JARS made of limestone, calcite or clay.
However, the HEART was left in the body because
it was considered the center of intelligence
EGYPT
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EGYPT

• MATERIALS USED IN MUMMIFICATION
• Linen
• Sawdust
• Lichen
• Beeswax
• Resin

• Natron
• Onion
• Nile mud
• Linen pads

• Frankincense

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MUMMIFICATION TOOLS The ancient embalmers used
very few tools. The basic tool kit included a
KNIFE to make the abdominal incision, hooked
bronze RODS to extract brain matter, a wooden
ADZE-like tool to remove internal organs, and a
FUNNEL to pour resins into the cranial cavity
through the nose.
EGYPT
70
GREECE

• The Greeks were POLYTHEISTIC and did not all
  worship the same gods. Some small villages
  worshiped the main gods and their own village
  gods.
• There were hundreds of Greek gods (perhaps around
  1,000).  Some of the most famous gods were Zeus,
  Hera, Apollo, Artemis, Poseidon, Aphrodite,
  Athena, Demeter, Hermes, Ares, and Hades.
• ZEUS surpassed all other gods in spirit, wisdom
  and justice and his wife HERA was the queen of
  the gods.
•  

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GREECE
SACRIFICES to please the gods were a major part
of every Greek's religion. Most gods preferred an
animal sacrifice -- generally a DOMESTICATED
ANIMAL like a chicken, goat or cow. When an
animal was sacrificed, it was burned on top of an
altar. After it was fully cooked, it had to be
EATEN ON THE SPOT -- usually before nightfall.
These sacrifices were the property of the god,
and had to be eaten in his presence. This was
especially important because the ancient Greeks
believed that the god's spirit was within the
animal sacrificed, and by eating the animal, the
worshippers CONSUMED HIS POWER. In this way, they
strengthened the connection between man and god.
 
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GREECE
73

• Religion played a very important role in the
  daily life of Ancient Rome. The Romans believed
  that GODS CONTROLLED THEIR LIVES and, as a
  result, spent a great deal of their time
  worshipping them.
• The most important god was JUPITER. He was the
  king of gods who ruled with his wife JUNO, the
  goddess of the sky.
• Other gods includes MARS, MERCURY, NEPTUNE,
  JANIS, DIANA, VESTA, MINERVA, VENUS.
• After the reign of the EMPEROR AUGUSTUS (27 BC to
  AD 14), the emperor was also considered to be a
  god and he was worshipped on special occasions.

ROME
74

• TEMPLES to worship the gods were built throughout
  the Roman Empire.
• Each family home would also have a small altar
  and shrine. The Romans had PERSONAL HOUSEHOLD
  GODS or spirits called lares which were
  worshipped every day at home. The shrine
  contained statues of the lares and the head of
  the household led family prayers around the
  shrine each day.

ROME
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Arts and Sciences
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EGYPT
The EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE was one of the earliest
languages to be written down, perhaps only the
Sumerian language is older. First appearing on
stone and pottery dating from 3100 B.C. to 3000
B.C., it remained in use for almost 3,000
years. The last inscription was written in A.D.
394.
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EGYPT
78
DRAFTSMEN were scribes who specialized in
drawing. They followed a formula that makes
standing and sitting figures look stiff. Using
a traditional grid of 18 squares, they sketched
figures according to a predetermined pattern,
making no attempt to show perspective. The eyes
and shoulders are drawn from the front and the
face, torso, arms and legs
EGYPT
79
MATHEMATICS Although the Egyptians lacked the
symbol for zero, they calculated numbers based on
the DECIMAL and the repetitive (numbers based on
the POWER OF 10). The following signs were used
to represent numbers in the decimal system
EGYPT
Numbers were usually written LEFT TO RIGHT,
starting with the highest denominator. See if you
can translate this number
The Egyptians did not develop abstract
mathematical formulas. They used the simple
arithmetic of ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
80
EGYPT
MEDICINE The doctors of ancient Egypt combined
MAGIC SPELLS with REMEDIES. If a person fell
sick, the illness was thought to be caused by the
wrath of the gods or by an evil spirit that had
entered the body. Both PRIESTS AND DOCTORS were
called upon to heal the sick, combining their
powers and skills to fix the problem. Doctors
found cures for many diseases and some of their
concepts are still used today. They used CASTOR
OIL as laxatives, TANNIC ACID from the acadia
tree to heal burns, CORIANDER in a tea for
stomach illnesses, and CUMMIN SEEDS on aching or
arthritic joints and to calm a cough. They also
made and used TOOLS FOR SURGICAL USE that are
similar to the ones that we use today.
81
GREECE

• The Ancient Greeks are known for three main
  items their SCULPTURES, their TEMPLES, and their
  VASE PAINTINGS.
• The art work embodies the ideas of EXCELLENCE,
  COURAGE and INDEPENDENCE.
• The Greeks IDEALIZED HUMANS, showing the strong
  and youthful depiction of men and women. The
  topics shown in their vases reflect the
  importance of strength, athletic competition, and
  battles. Their temples reflected their religious
  beliefs in the gods.

82

• Philosophy enabled many thinkers to move beyond
  mythic explanations of the universe and arrive at
  ones based on self-conscious rational methods of
  inquiry. 
• The early COSMOLOGISTS, such as THALES,
  PYTHAGORAS, and DEMOCRITUS, developed RATIONAL
  ACCOUNTS OF NATURE in terms of imperishable
  substances, mathematical principles, or the
  properties of atoms. 
• Similarly, HIPPOCRATES and his followers rejected
  mythic-religious explanations of disease and
  observed symptoms in order to identify their
  natural causes. 
• Against the Cosmologists, the SOPHISTS argued
  that speculation about the universe was futile. 
  Instead, these thinkers scrutinized people and
  society and instructed men in the skills of
  oratory (winning an argument). 
• Protagoras and other Sophists examined questions
  of ETHICS, LAW, and MORALITY, but they were
  PHILOSOPHICAL RELATIVISTS whose critical method
  undermined traditional authority

GREECE
83

• The Romans developed a distinctive SCULPTURE
  which was realistic, secular, and
  individualistic. EQUESTRIAN STATUES sculpted
  coffins (SARCOPHAGI), and the RELIEFS found on
  imperial monuments were exceptionally fine works
  of art. The Romans were particularly skilled in
  producing floor MOSAICS and in painting FRESCOES.
  Roman epic, dramatic, and lyric POETRY forms were
  usually written in conscious imitation of Greek
  masterpieces.

ROME
84

• The Romans were attracted to two Hellenistic
  ethical philosophies
• EPICURIANSIM taught that the wise man could
  achieve happiness simply by freeing his body from
  pain and his mind from fear -- particularly the
  fear of death. To reach this goal, men must AVOID
  BODILY EXCESSES, including those of pleasure, and
  accept the scientific teaching of Democritus that
  both body and soul are composed of atoms which
  fall apart at death. Thus, BEYOND DEATH THERE IS
  NO EXISTENCE and nothing to fear.

ROME

• STOICISM argued that THE UNIVERSE IS CONTROLLED
  by some power -- variously called Reason, World
  Soul, Fortune, and God -- which determines
  everything that happens. The wise man conforms
  his will to the World Will and STOICALLY"
  ACCEPTS whatever part fortune allots him in the
  drama of life.
• Stoicism had a humanizing effect on Roman law by
  introducing such concepts as the LAW OF NATURE,
  the LAW OF BROTHERHOOD OF MEN (including slaves),
  and the view that a man is INNOCENT UNTIL PROVED
  GUILTY.