Objective 2.4: *Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes. *section B essay question

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Objective 2.4Discuss two effects of the
environment on physiological processes.
section B essay question
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Things to consider.

• Our Brains are made in a way that allows it to
  adapt to the environment that it is placed in.
  Neurotransmission and hormones adapt to the
  specific environment it is placed in. This is has
  been shown in research dealing with adaptation to
  violent environments and neurotransmission
  desensitization.
• Research should be used to support your
  explanation.

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Things to consider.

• Early 20th century believed that brain was only
  influenced by genes and thus unchangeable
• Now we know that environmental enrichment
  /deprivation(an environmental factor) can modify
  the brain (a physiological process).

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Two effects

• The effect of Deprivation and Stimulation on
  Neuroplasticity

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Environment and Brain Plasticity

• Neuroplasticity is a non-specific neuroscience
  term referring to the ability of the brain and
  nervous system in all species to change
  structurally and functionally as a result of
  input from the environment
• Plasticity occurs on a variety of levels, ranging
  from cellular changes involved in learning, to
  large-scale changes involved in cortical
  remapping in response to injury and disease.

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Environment and Brain Plasticity

• Neuroplasticity is a non-specific neuroscience
  term referring to the ability of the brain and
  nervous system in all species to change
  structurally and functionally as a result of
  input from the environment
• Plasticity occurs on a variety of levels, ranging
  from cellular changes involved in learning, to
  large-scale changes involved in cortical
  remapping in response to injury and disease.

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1. Environmental Enrichment

• Neurons can compensate for injury or disease or
  to adjust their activities in response to new
  situations or changes in the environment. The
  brain is most plastic early in life (This is
  known as the critical period).
• The brain can rearrange the connections between
  neurons (dendritic branching)

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Environment and Brain Plasticity

• The brain can generate new neurons throughout
  life (neurogenesis)
• Learning can increase/decrease neurotransmission
  between specific neurons (long term potentiation)
• It is assumed that as your behavior changes (in
  most cases because of environmental change), so
  does the underlying neural circuitry.

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Effects of environmental enrichment on brain
plasticity.

• Environmental enrichment concerns how the brain
  is affected by the stimulation of its information
  processing provided by its surroundings
  (including the opportunity to interact socially).
  
• Brains in richer, more stimulating environments,
  have increased numbers of synapses, and the
  dendrite arbors upon which they reside are more
  complex.
• This effect happens particularly during
  neurodevelopment, but also to a lesser degree in
  adulthood.
• What does this suggest?

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Rosenzweig Bennett (1972)

• Aim To investigate the effect of enrichment or
  deprivation on the development of neurons in the
  cerebral cortex in rats
• Research method Experiment
• Procedure Rats were placed in either a
  stimulating environment (toys) or a deprived
  environment (no toys).
• The rats spent 30 or 60 days in their environment
  and then they were dissected.

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Rosenzweig Bennett (1972)

• Findings Post mortem studies of the rats brains
  showed that those that had been in a stimulating
  environment had an increased thickness in the
  cortex.

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Kolb (1999)

• Aim To investigate if stimulating environments
  affect the growth of neurons in rats
• Research method Experiment
• Procedure Rats were placed in enriched
  environments beginning at weaning or as young
  adults. Control group were placed in standard
  cages

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Kolb (1999)

• Findings Both age groups raised in enriched
  environments showed a large increase of the
  length of dendrites in cortical neurons.

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Research on environmental enrichment cont.

• According to the principle that states animal
  research can be used in place of human because of
  their biological similarities, we can infer that
  a lack of stimulation (deprivationsuch as in
  old-style orphanages) delays and impairs
  physiological parts of the brain responsible for
  cognitive development.
• Research also finds that higher levels of
  education (which is both cognitively stimulating
  in itself, and associates with people engaging in
  more challenging cognitive activities) results in
  greater resilience (cognitive reserve) to the
  effects of aging and dementia.

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The Case of Genie
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Research on environmental enrichment cont.

• Such studies suggest that brains are physically
  sculpted by our environments. Aspects of the
  brain can be changed as we go through
  experiences. As a person develops a greater
  number of skills and abilities, the brain
  actually becomes more complex and heavier.
• Research has also suggested that Children who are
  unable to have certain experiences, will have
  specific parts of their brain significantly less
  developed, less intricate, and thinner in
  comparison to those who have had those
  experiences.

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Mirror neurons and the environment.

• Another way in which the brain and environment
  interact is through the activity of the recently
  discovered mirror neurons. Mirror neurons are
  neurons that fire when an animal performs an
  action or when the animal observes somebody else
  perform the same action.
• This means we subconsciously mimic the actions of
  others and thus share, to some extent, their
  experience.
• How can this be effected by your environment?

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Mirror neurons and the environment.

• http//www.ted.com/talks/vs_ramachandran_the_neuro
  ns_that_shaped_civilization.html

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2. Mirror neurons and the environment.

• The proposed mechanism is rather simple. Each
  time an individual sees an action done by another
  individual, neurons that represent that action
  are activated in the observers premotor cortex.
• This automatically induced, motor representation
  of the observed action corresponds to that which
  is spontaneously generated during active action
  and whose outcome is known to the acting
  individual.
• Thus, the mirror-neuron system transforms visual
  information into knowledge.

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Mirror neurons and the environment.

• These mirror neurons, as they are known, also
  allow us to know what another person is feeling,
  without having to think about it.
• The discovery of mirror neurons is among the most
  significant neuroscientific discoveries in recent
  years.
• This mean that when you see someone doing
  something, in your brain you do it too - for
  instance, when you watch a person running, the
  bit of your brain concerned with planning to move
  the legs is activated.

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Mirror neurons and the environment.

• When you see another person expressing an
  emotion, the areas of your brain associated with
  feeling that emotion are also activated, making
  emotions transmittable.
• Emotion mirroring is thought to be the basis of
  empathy. Autistic people often lack empathy and
  have been found to show less mirror-neuron
  activity.
• Mirror neurons explain why emotion is whipped up
  in horror film audiences - seeing someone else
  looking frightened makes you feel scared
  yourself.

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More Info

• http//www.robotcub.org/misc/papers/06_Rizzolatti_
  Craighero.pdf

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Objective 2.5Examine one interaction between
cognition and physiology in terms of behavior.
Evaluate one research study/theory section B
essay question
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Things to consider.

• There are numerous theories/studies that suggest
  that our cognition(to mean such functions or
  processes as perception, introspection, memory,
  creativity, imagination, conception, belief,
  reasoning, volition, and emotion) interacts with
  physiological functions (brain parts,
  neurotransmitters) to guide behavior.
• This essay should be started by first explaining
  the interaction between physiology and cognition
  in all behavior. Examples should be provided to
  show knowledge and understanding of these
  interactions.

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First things firstWhat is cognition?

• In psychology, cognition is a group of mental
  processes that includes attention, memory,
  producing and understanding language, perception,
  and making decisions.
• There is an interaction of physiological factors
  and cognitive factors in many of the behaviors
  that we experience.
• One particular behavior is the experience of
  emotion.

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The interaction of cognitive and physiological
factors

• Psychologists have long debated the role
  physiological, and cognitive factors play in
  emotions.
• Originally believed to be a physiological
  experience, research now suggests that emotions
  are an interaction of both physiological and
  cognitive factors.
• Different theories debate the role and primacy
  of each. For this objective, we will evaluate two
  theories.
•  

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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology Emotion

• Emotions are an individuals subjective feelings
  and moods.
• The term applies to both physiological and
  cognitive responses to specific stimulus
  situations.

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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology Emotion

• One component of emotions is cognitive processes.
  
• Although psychologists differ in the extent to
  which they emphasize the role of cognition in
  emotional arousal and expression, there is a
  general consensus that perception, learning, and
  memory are all very much involved in experiencing
  emotions.
• Listening to music, or looking at a picture often
  elicits conditioned or learned emotions.

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Identify the emotion that the following pictures
elicit
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Picture 1
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Excitement
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Picture 2
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Sadness
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Picture 3
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Anger
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Picture 4
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Surprised
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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology Emotion

• The other component of emotions is physiological
  arousal.
• When someone describes their anger by saying the
  juices were flowing, this account is close to
  the mark.
• The juices," in the form of epinephrine and
  other hormones associated with the arousal of
  anger, probably were flowing.
• As a result of this increased endocrine activity,
  we might guess that for a few moments the heart
  rate increases dramatically, blood pressure
  probably increased significantly, and breathing
  may have become rapid and uneven.
• In other words, there is a physiological response
  to our emotions.

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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology Emotion

• Schacter (1964) was the first theorist to bring
  together the two elements of physiological
  arousal and cognition.
• It is sometimes known as the two-factor theory of
  emotion. For an emotion to be experienced, a
  physiological state of arousal is necessary AND
  situational factors will then determine how we
  perceive this arousal.

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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology

• In other words, an event causes physiological
  arousal first.
• You must then identify a reason for this arousal
  and then you are able to experience and label the
  emotion.
• The strength of physiological arousal will
  determine the strength of emotion experienced,
  while the situation will determine the type of
  emotion. These two factors are independent of
  each other BUT both are necessary for the emotion
  to be experienced.

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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology

• We appraise the emotion-causing event while also
  evaluating what is happening with our bodies. The
  key process in emotional arousal is how we
  interpret feedback from our bodies in light of
  our present situation.

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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology

• So, imagine you are alone in a dark parking lot
  walking toward your car. A strange man suddenly
  emerges from a nearby row of trees and rapidly
  approaches.
• The sequence that follows, according to the
  two-factor theory, would be much like this
• 1. I see a strange man walking toward me.
• 2. My heart is racing and I am trembling.
• 3. My rapid heart rate and trembling are
  interpreted as fear because of the situation.
• 4. I am frightened!

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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology

• Why are cognitive labels important in identifying
  emotions?
• How can this same physiological response be
  perceived differently?

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Physiological Similarities

• Physiological responses related to the emotions
  of fear, anger, love, and jealousy are very
  similar. Without a cognitive label, we would
  misinterpret those emotions.

M. Grecco/ Stock Boston
Excitement and fear involve a similar physiologica
l arousal.
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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology

• Schachter and Singers Experiment
• A classic study by Schacter Singer ( 1962)
  supports these ideas. Their study tested the
  theory that an emotion is made up of cognitive
  appraisal (labeling the emotion) and
  physiological arousal (adrenaline and the
  physical changes it produces).

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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology

• Schachter and Singers Experiment
• The aim of the experiment was to test the
  two-factor theory of emotion to see if
  participants exhibited both cognitive and
  biological reactions to an stimulus.

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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology

• Schachter and Singers Experiment
• A group of 184 male participants were injected
  with epinephrine, a neurotransmitter (which also
  doubles as a hormone) that produces arousal
  including increased heartbeat, trembling and
  rapid breathing.
• All of the participants were told that they were
  being injected with a new drug to test their
  eyesight (which was false). However, one group of
  participants were informed of the symptoms the
  injection might cause (control group), while
  other participants were not (experimental group).

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Examining one interaction of cognition and
physiology

• Schachter and Singers Experiment
• Participants were then placed in a room with
  another participant who was actually a
  confederate in the experiment.
• The confederate either acted in one of two ways
  euphoric or angry. Participants who had not been
  informed about the effects of the injection were
  more likely to feel either happier or angrier
  than those who had been informed.

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Evaluation of two factory theory

• While Schachter and Singers research spawned a
  great deal of further research, their theory has
  also been subject to criticism. Other researchers
  have only partially supported the findings of the
  original study, and have had times shown
  contradictory results.
• Other criticisms of the two-factor theory
• Sometimes emotions are experienced automatically
  before we have time to perceive them.
• The sample was not representative (all male) and
  males may have different emotional reactions to
  females. This therefore makes it difficult to
  generalize the findings further.

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Objective 2.6Discuss the use of brain imaging
technologies in investigating the relationship
between biological factors and behavior.section
B essay question
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Things to consider.

• You need to be able to explain these
  technologies, what they are used for, and their
  relative use at the biological level.
• You also need to give examples of research that
  use these technologies to demonstrate your
  knowledge and understanding of each technique.

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Brain Imaging Technology

• Scientists who studied brain properties and
  functions many years ago were forced to
  experiment on animal brains, to study autopsied
  brains (post mortem) of people who had various
  cognitive and/or motor impairments, and to
  compare the behavior of people with normal and
  abnormal brains.

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Brain Imaging Technology

• Recent advances in computerized imaging
  technology have made it possible to
  non-invasively pass through the skull and brain
  tissue and observe, amplify, record, rapidly
  analyze the brain substances and signals that
  reflect activity in very specific brain regions.
• This technology has revolutionized brain and mind
  research, and the diagnosis and treatment of many
  brain-related diseases and malfunctions.

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Modern Brain Imaging Technology

• Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan
• Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

• An amplified recording of the electrical waves
  sweeping across the brains surface, measured by
  electrodes placed on the scalp.

AJ Photo/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

• The electroencephalogram (EEG) is a recording of
  the electrical activity of the brain from the
  scalp.
• The first recordings were made by Hans Berger in
  1929 although similar studies had been carried
  out in animals as early as 1870.
• The waveforms recorded are thought to reflect the
  activity of the surface of the brain, the cortex.
  This activity is influenced by the electrical
  activity (neurotransmission) from the brain
  structures underneath the cortex.

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The use of Electroencephalogram (EEG) at the BLOA

• EEG has been employed clinically for some time as
  a measure of brain function in the hope of
  determining and differentiating certain
  functional conditions of the brain.
• It is used in patients with cognitive
  dysfunction (due to low neurological activity and
  or brain damage), either a general decline of
  overall brain function or a localized deficit.

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The use of Electroencephalogram (EEG) at the BLOA

• EEG is used extensively to assess neurological
  disorders.
• Abnormal decreases of brain activity, usually
  associated with large slow EEG waves, can occur
  with brain damage.
• After very extensive brain damage there may be no
  electrical activity recorded from the brain.

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The use of Electroencephalogram (EEG) at the BLOA

• The EEG patterns change when external stimuli
  (such as sounds or pictures) are presented. These
  stimuli cause or evoke a particular pattern of
  brain activity, called the evoked potential.
• When we measure a lack of activity during a
  certain activity, we are able to conclude that
  lower levels of neurotransmission are taking
  place in that region of the brain.

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Computerized Axial Tomography

• A more revealing look at the brain is obtained by
  brain-imaging techniques, which provide pictures
  or scans of the brain.
• One such technique is the computerized axial
  tomograph (CAT) scan. A CAT scan takes thousands
  of X-ray photographs of the brain while the
  patient lies still on a table. The patients head
  is placed in the middle of a doughnut-shaped
  ring.

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Computerized Axial Tomography

• Using a computer, the multiple X-ray images are
  combined to construct a picture of the brain.
• How can seeing an actual picture of the brain
  be beneficial to psychologist at the BLOA?

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Computerized Axial Tomography

• CAT scans are helpful in detecting brain
  abnormalities, such as swelling and lesions in
  certain areas.
• Based on this cat scan, what part of the brain
  appears to be abnormal?
• What can we assume about the behavior of this
  patient based on the cat scan?

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Computerized Axial Tomography

• With cat scans (as well as MRI scans) we are
  better able to understand localization of
  function in live humans.
• The patient in the picture suffered from cerebral
  contusions. This brain damage had a cognitive
  effect on coordination and movement. They also
  had difficulty with making sense of memory,
  managing emotions, and thinking.
• Thus, we are able to better understand the human
  brain without the necessity of post-mortem
  studies.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• Another brain-imaging technique is magnetic
  resonance imaging (MRI).
• This technology produces three-dimensional images
  of the brains soft tissues by detecting magnetic
  activity from nuclear particles in brain
  molecules.
• MRI provides greater accuracy in the diagnosis of
  brain diseases than the CAT scan.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has been in
  widespread use since the early 1980s.
• It uses magnetic fields , radio waves and
  computerized enhancement to map out brain
  structure. MRI scans provide better images of
  brain structure than CAT scans.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• Doctors often recommend magnetic resonance
  imaging (MRI) when investigating whether a person
  has Alzheimer's disease, mainly to rule out other
  possible causes for cognitive impairment, such as
  a brain tumor or blood clot.
• But recent research suggests that MRI could
  become a key diagnostic tool by revealing changes
  in the brain even before Alzheimer's symptoms
  appear.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• Alzheimer's disease affects the brain in many
  ways, but one of the most apparent involves an
  area called the hippocampus.
• This part of the brain is responsible for memory
  and processing emotion it also plays a role in
  an individual's motor skills.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• In a small 2008 French study, researchers using
  MRI to evaluate people with Alzheimer's disease
  found that the hippocampus in those already
  diagnosed was nearly a third smaller than
  average.
• The hippocampus was 19 smaller in people who had
  not been diagnosed but were experiencing mental
  impairment.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• In the aforementioned study, which involved 74
  subjects, physicians reported being able to
  classify those with Alzheimer's disease and those
  without symptoms with 84 accuracy based on
  measurement of the hippocampus.
• The researchers were accurate 73 of the time
  when distinguishing between patients without
  symptoms and those with mild cognitive
  impairment. Again, however, it's important to
  remember that this was a small study.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• This would suggest that MRI scans, when done
  early on in life, can help to predict and
  diagnose cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's
  and dementia that directly effect specific parts
  of the brain.

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Other Brain Imaging Technologies

• The positron emission tomography (PET) scan
  measures the amount of brain activity.
• Neural activity in different brain regions is
  measured by showing each regions use of glucose,
  a sugar that is the brains chemical fuel.
• PET scans can reveal which parts of the brain are
  most active in such tasks as talking or listening
  to others, reading, listening to music, and
  solving math problems.

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Other Brain Imaging Technologies

• A newer technology called functional magnetic
  resonance imaging (fMRI) produces a picture of
  neural activity averaged over seconds, not
  minutes, and the images can identify much smaller
  brain structures than those in PET scans.

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• Questions?